Ngäbe community teacher implements the audio program
Ngäbe community teacher implements the audio program
Indigenous students worldwide face significant educational barriers. In Panama, the Ngäbe-Buglé students score among the lowest on national assessments. The JADENKÄ programme, an innovative intercultural bilingual initiative, was launched to address this gap. By blending formal mathematics with ethnomathematical concepts from Ngäbe culture, it improved mathematical proficiency and appreciation for indigenous cultural heritage.
The case for integrating ethnomathematics in school curricula
In an increasingly globalised world, education systems struggle to balance universal standards with cultural preservation. As countries worldwide commit to quality universal education, how can education systems effectively serve indigenous students without forcing them to choose between academic success and cultural identity?
There are around 476 million indigenous people around the world, living in 90 countries and representing over 5,000 distinct cultural groups (UN 2025). Many of these groups have developed their own mathematical language known as ethnomathematics (Ascher and D’Ambrosio 1994, Gerdes 1994, Rosa and Orey 2005), introducing the idea that mathematics is not universal (Bishop 1988, D’Ambrosio 1985).
Proponents of introducing ethnomathematics in schools argue that it serves as a basis for better understanding formal mathematics (Adam et al. 2003, Clarkson 2007), improves learning by giving students the skills to be successful within their two (or more) cultures (LaFromboise et al. 1993), boosts self-esteem and motivation to learn (Powell and Frankenstein 1997), and attributes value to students’ culture (Meaney 2002, Rosa and Gavarrete 2017). Nevertheless, sceptics worry about potential negative effects on integration and equity as ethnomathematical skills may put students at a disadvantage in an increasingly mathematised world (Rowlands and Carson 2002, Skovsmose 1994).
The Ngäbe numerical system combines linguistic markers for numbers with quantifiers classifying the elements that are counted (e.g. shape (round, long, and flat), person(s), food). Combining them implies that numerical symbols are not independent (i.e. they do not have a meaning without combining them with the quantifier). With 11 numbers ranging from 1 to 10 and 20 serving as the link between the decimal and vigesimal bases, quantifiers are required for counting but do not impact arithmetic operations.
For example, students learn that an orange should be classified as round and rendered as ‘Kwa-ti-naran’ or ‘rounded thing-one-orange’ (Figure 1). They also learn that if that same orange is cut in half and is no longer round, its noun class changes, affecting the way it is counted (Näslund-Hadley et al. 2018).
Figure 1: Examples from the Ngäbe numerical system
Examples from the Ngäbe numerical system
Examples from the Ngäbe numerical system
Source: Näslund-Hadley et al. 2018
Despite the extensive debate, there is limited empirical evidence on the impact of an ethnomathematics approach within formal school systems. In Näslund-Hadley et al. (2025), we present evidence on the effectiveness of an intercultural bilingual programme designed to increase the mathematical and ethnomathematical skills of Ngäbe preschool students, an indigenous group within the Ngäbe-Bugle region in Panama.
Designing an ethnomathematics curriculum in Ngäbe-Bugle schools
Panama faces significant challenges in student learning, scoring below the Latin American average on the regional standardised test. Within the country, there are major disparities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations in infrastructure and educational quality, contributing to learning gaps of up to 0.69 standard deviations (roughly equivalent to three years of schooling). In particular, students from the Ngäbe-Buglé ethnic group have the lowest scores on national assessments (Sánchez-Restrepo 2019).
To address this disparity, the Ministry of Education, in collaboration with the Organization of Ibero-American States and Inter-American Development Bank, designed the JADENKÄ programme. The programme integrates formal mathematics curriculum with ethnomathematical concepts from Ngäbe culture, such as the Ngäbe numbering system.
A common challenge in Indigenous communities is the language barrier between teachers and students. Many teachers assigned to Indigenous students do not speak the local language, making communication difficult (Näslund-Hadley and Santos 2021). This is further complicated by the fact that classrooms often comprise a diverse mix of students—some monolingual in Spanish, others in Ngäbere, and some bilingual—requiring an instructional approach that accommodates all linguistic backgrounds.
To address this challenge, the JADENKÄ programme was implemented using the Interactive Radio Instruction methodology, which involved hiring Ngäbe actors and singers to record 108 audio lessons, ensuring that key concepts were repeated in both Spanish and Ngäbere. Each 45-minute lesson provided step-by-step guidance for teachers, following an inquiry- and problem-based learning approach. Students then worked in groups to solve mathematical challenges under teacher supervision, while integrated songs and dances reinforced mathematical concepts in an engaging and culturally relevant way.
To facilitate the implementation, teachers received USB drives with the audio lessons, and each classroom was equipped with a radio, a set of ethnomathematics storybooks in Ngäbere, a teacher’s guide, student worksheets, post-audio materials, and basic learning materials. Additionally, teachers participated in a two-day training on how to use the audio lessons to enhance student learning.
Figure 2: Ngäbe interviewer administers a learning assessment to a Ngäbe community student
Ngäbe interviewer administers a learning assessment to a Ngäbe community student
Ngäbe interviewer administers a learning assessment to a Ngäbe community student
Source: IDB and IPA
Policy implications for ethnomathematics curricula
Our findings highlight numerous actionable recommendations for policymakers.
The programme not only strengthened students' understanding of ethnomathematics but also improved their overall mathematical skills.
To assess the impact of this programme, we conducted a randomised evaluation with the support of Innovations for Poverty Action. Our findings show positive effects on both mathematical skills (0.12-0.18 standard deviations, roughly equivalent to two-thirds of a year of schooling) and ethnomathematical skills (0.23 standard deviations). These results suggest that the programme effectively strengthened both skill sets without a trade-off, equipping students with competencies that prepare them for both the workforce and life in their communities.
The inclusion of Ngäbe cultural knowledge in the school allowed students to rediscover and appreciate their own culture.
Research suggests that incorporating indigenous cultural content into education curricula can positively impact students' cultural identity, fostering a greater appreciation for their own heritage. We observe that students who participated in the programme scored higher on the Cultural Identity Index, with an effect size of 0.14-0.16 SD in 2018. This impact was again observed in 2019, with a similarly high magnitude (0.12 SD).
These findings align with qualitative data from the programme, in which we noted an increased use and appreciation of Ngäbe cultural elements in treated schools. Examples include a greater presence of the ‘Nagua’ (traditional dress), the ‘Totuma’ (a traditional Ngäbe container), and the ‘Jeki’ (a traditional dance). Additionally, there was a noticeable increase in the use of Ngäbere as a language for learning and classroom instruction.
These findings align with qualitative data from the programme, in which we noted an increased use and appreciation of Ngäbe cultural elements in treated schools. Examples include a greater presence of the ‘Nagua’ (traditional dress), the ‘Totuma’ (a traditional Ngäbe container), and the ‘Jeki’ (a traditional dance). Additionally, there was a noticeable increase in the use of Ngäbere as a language for learning and classroom instruction.
Figure 3: Impact of JADENKÄ on mathematics, ethnomathematics, and identity
Impact of JADENKÄ on mathematics, ethnomathematics, and identity
Impact of JADENKÄ on mathematics, ethnomathematics, and identity
Note: The graph reports the average difference. The scores have been normalised with respect to the distribution of the control group; therefore, the mean of the control group is 0. *, **, *** indicate that the coefficients are statistically significant at a confidence level of 0.10, 0.05, and 0.01, respectively. Source: Näslund-Hadley et al. (2025).
Teachers gained knowledge of their students' culture and language.
The programme enabled teachers to learn the language and culture of their students. Our results indicate that teachers enhanced their knowledge of Ngäbere vocabulary (0.56 SD in 2018, 0.69 SD in 2019) and culture (0.56 SD in 2018, 0.72 SD in 2019), as well as their understanding of ethnomathematics (0.56 SD in 2018, 0.67 SD in 2019).
Teachers in both groups—those who participated in the programme and those who did not— spent about the same amount of time teaching mathematics each week. This suggests that the programme's positive outcomes are a result of what was taught and how it was taught, rather than from spending extra time on mathematics.
The future of ethnomathematics curricula
Our findings indicate that a bilingual preschool programme leveraging interactive audio instruction, while simultaneously incorporating elements of local culture, can yield positive effects on mathematics learning compared to a monolingual education model.
Moreover, consistent with previous research on Intercultural Bilingual Education (IBE) curricula (Amit and Abi Quoder 2017, Falbo and de Baessa 2006), we find that the programme positively influences students’ cultural identity. This suggests that JADENKÄ can help close achievement gaps without forcing students to choose between academic success and their cultural identity.
Additionally, the programme enhanced teachers’ skills, particularly in ethnomathematics, as well as their knowledge of Ngäbere and Ngäbe culture. This is especially significant given that one of the key challenges of IBE policies in Latin America is the lack of cultural and linguistic training among educators (López 2021).
Given these results, the JADENKÄ programme holds potential for replication in similar contexts within Panama and other education systems experiencing disparities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students.
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