AbstractGlobally, the disposal of waste plastic bottles is challenging. However, many researchers reported the importance of incorporating waste polyethylene-based waste water bottles (WWB) as a fiber and treated sisal fiber separately in the concrete mixture. However, it is novel to reinforce concrete by WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber together for more production of sustainable concrete. So the present study investigated the effect of using different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber on the physical and mechanical properties of concrete. Also, it is detail discussed its effect on concrete durability like in different elevated temperatures and acidic environments. As the result indicates, the reinforcement of concrete by WWB and treated sisal fibers lessens the fresh density and in 5% of HCl solution, it give higher strength and lower mass loss compared to the control concrete. Also, concrete WF25 increased compressive strength by 34.6%, 7.42%, and 3.6% respectively at 28, 56, and 180 days of concrete age, while concrete sample WF100 highly increased the splitting tensile strength of concrete by 26.67% compared to the control concrete mixture. Concrete having only WWB without treated sisal fiber reduced water absorption, increased mass loss, and lessened strength at 200, 300, and 400 °C elevated temperatures. So, this study is significant for implementing improved construction material performance by WWB and treated sisal fibers, as well as supporting the reduction of plastic bottles from the environment.
IntroductionPlastic materials are highly manufactured due to their low weight and long life for holding many day-to-day products while their disposal highly pollutes the environment. Polyethylene bottles are mostly manufactured plastic materials used for drinking water packs and other products as well. However, due to its non-biodegradability, it’s polluting the environment and changing the aesthetic value of the land besides causing many diseases to the society. In the United States, the formation of plastic materials generating solid waste increased from 0.39 million tons in 1960 to 34.5 million tons in 2018, however, only 9.1% is recycled, and 15% is burnt for energy purposes while the remaining 75% was landfill which highly causes environmental pollution1.Polyethylene bottle recycling is the main solution for the mitigation of plastic hazards from the environment, especially if it is used in the construction industry that covers a broad area. Hence, many researchers have studied the use of plastic waste in concrete mixtures2,3,4,5,6. This can be beneficial because polyethylene bottles are ductile materials while concrete is brittle that has low strain capacity, and is less tension force resistant7,8,9,10,11,12. This means employment of polyethylene bottles in concrete is important to increase the ductility and tensile strength of concrete besides reducing shrinkage cracks13,14,15. Mostly, the addition of polyethylene bottles in concrete as a fiber or aggregate promises many concrete properties16,17, in addition to potentially lessening environmental pollution and decreasing the socio-economic impact of plastic materials18,19.Mokhtar et al.20 studied waste polyethylene fiber replacement in concrete and found a good concrete performance compared to concrete reinforcement by new plastic fiber. Also, the study found that waste polyethylene fiber reinforcement can replicate the existing steel fiber in addition to reducing polyethylene-based landfill wastes, hence, supporting the sustainability of a clean environment for the upcoming generations. Also, Hassan et al.21 studied on hybrid macro and micro polypropylene fibers in concrete containing activated slag. This study found the use of macro and micro polypropylene fibers in concrete decreases 15% of shrinkage compared to the control mix. Besides these, using natural fibers like sisal fiber in a concrete mixture can assist in the sustainability of green concrete. So the present study used polyethylene-based waste water bottle fiber and treated sisal fiber for reinforcing of concrete matrix.Research significanceMany researchers found that the employment of sisal fiber in concrete enhances tensile strength, ductility, control crack opening, and propagation while allowing maximum deformation without less integrity22,23. Also, the addition of sisal fiber in the concrete potentially lessens the micro-cracks and porosity of concrete and reduces the construction material’s brittle failure. Additionally, it is reported the incorporation of waste polyethylene materials as fiber and the employment of treated sisal fiber separately in the concrete mixture. So, it is novel to study the effect of using waste PET fiber with treated sisal fiber in different concrete properties. Also, it is novel to get an optimum dose of waste plastic bottle fiber and treated sisal fiber which impact positively concrete properties. Therefore, the present study investigated the effect of using different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber on concrete physical and mechanical properties. Also, it is detail discussed the use of different doses of WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber in concrete durability such as in different elevated temperatures and acidic environments. Additionally, it assessed the resistance of concrete containing WWB and treated sisal fibers in different adverse environments.MaterialsThe concrete specimens used in this study have water, cement, sand, coarse aggregate, and WWB fiber with and without reinforcement of treated sisal fiber. The cement used is Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of CEM I 32.5R. Also, as shown in Fig. 1 the fine and coarse aggregates, it is used as the ASTM C49624. For the concrete mixing the tap water is used from Arusha Technical College, Tanzania, where this study was conducted.The raw sisal fiber and WWB as a fiber are extracted from Hale and Arusha, Tanzania respectively. The waste water bottle after it is recycled into pieces of fiber which is ready to use is collected from A to Z industry. The raw collected sisal fiber is treated with calcined bentonite which was performed in our previous study25,26. The detailed physical properties of the WWB and sisal fibers are shown in Table 1.Table 1 Materials physical property.Full size tableFig. 1Aggregate sieve analysis for FA- fine aggregate and CA- coarse aggregate.Full size imageSample PreparationThe concrete having C-25 designation is prepared by the mixture of ordinary Portland cement, sand, coarse aggregate, and water while it is reinforced by WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber as presented in Table 2. The concrete mixture and sample preparation are done as per ASTM C31/C31M -19 27, which has WWB fiber at the substitution dose of 0.25, 0.5, and 1% to the concrete volume with and without the addition of treated sisal fiber as presented in Table 2. The amount of treated sisal fiber for the reinforcement of the concrete mixture is 1.5% of the weight of cement which is taken from our previous work28. So all the concrete samples were cast 150 mm cubes and 150 mm diameter with 300 mm height of cylinder respectively for the compressive and split tensile strength tests as shown in Fig. 2.Table 2 Concrete mix design.Full size tableFig. 2Sample preparation and specimen casting process.Full size imageMethodsPhysical propertiesThe workability of fresh concrete employing different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber is tested based on ASTM C143/C143M29, using a slump test. Also, the fresh bulk density of concrete employed different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber is tested as ASTM C29/C29M30. For both tests, three consistent tests have been taken and the average of each has been recorded.Mechanical propertiesThe compressive strength test for concrete employed different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber is tested at 28, 56, and 180 days. The concrete cube was normally cured at room temperature by a tab water chamber. Also, the splitting tensile strength test is conducted for concrete containing different doses of WWB fibers with and without treated sisal fiber at the age of 28 days. Hence, it is used the compressive strength jig machine of 3000 kN/min which is used to test both compressive and splitting tensile strength tests24.Durability propertiesThe durability of concrete cubes employing different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber is tested in the solution of 5% hydrochloric acid and at different elevated temperatures. So, the concrete cube having different doses of WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber is immersed in the 5% solution of hydrochloric acid for 180 days after the initial mass was recorded before immersion into the solution. So for the concrete cubes cured in 5% HCl, the mass loss and strength of concrete cubes are conducted at the age of 180 days. Also, for different elevated temperatures, the mass loss and strength 81of concrete cubes reinforced by a WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber is tested at 56 days of concrete age. A laboratory box furnace is used to heat the concrete sample at 200, 300, and 400 °C at a heating rate of 5 °C/min. After reaching the required temperature the concrete spacimen are exposed to the respective heat for 1 h.So, after exposure to different temperatures, it is recorded the mass loss and strength changes. Besides these, the study has conducted the water absorption of concrete cubes employed with different WWB fibers with and without treated sisal fiber31.Results and discussionWorkability and fresh densityThe result of fresh concrete workability which employed treated sisal fiber and different doses of WWB fiber is shown in Fig. 3a. As the result indicates the employment of WWB fiber significantly increased the workability of concrete compared to all other samples. Also, increasing the dose of WWB fiber potentially increases the workability of concrete. This is due to the hydrophobic property of WWB fiber and its smooth surface can increase the flow ability of water consequently increasing the WWB dose raises the workability of fresh concrete32.Besides these, the reinforcement of treated sisal fiber with WWB fiber significantly reduced the workability of fresh concrete. This is due to sisal fiber surface pores which can absorb water and reduce the water level of concrete, hence lessening concrete workability. This finding is similar result with Mohammed et al.33 found improved concrete workability for concrete mixture added with crushed plastic waste. Besides these, many researchers found the reinforcement of sisal fiber in concrete lessens the workability which is measured by the concrete slump test34,35,36. Also, concrete workability consistently decreases with increasing the employment dose of sisal fiber in concrete37,38,39.The fresh concrete density incorporated with different doses of WWB and treated sisal fibers is illustrated in Fig. 3b. As a result, the control concrete has the highest fresh bulk density compared to all concrete samples. On the contrary, the fresh bulk density of concrete containing WWB has the lowest density compared to all concrete samples. This is because the density of plastic material is much lower than concrete composition like cement and aggregates.Also, concrete reinforced by both WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber has slightly higher fresh density than concrete containing only WWB, this is basically due to the added treated sisal fiber taken as a constant replacement by 1.5% to the cement weight, hence, its weight constantly increase the density of concrete with WWB fibers. However, the concrete having WWB and treated sisal fiber has lower fresh bulk density than the control concrete mixture. This is due to the density of WWB and sisal fiber being much lower than control concrete material compositions like cement and aggregates.The present result agrees with Tamrin & Nurdiana, 40 studied on the employment of waste polyethylene in concrete and found the density of concrete lessened and much lighter concrete while increasing the dose of waste polyethylene fibers in the concrete mixture which is mainly because of the waste polyethylene fiber have low density compared to the concrete mixture.Fig. 3Concrete containing waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers for a) workability and b) fresh density.Full size imageCompressive and splitting tensile strengthThe compressive strength test results for concrete reinforced by WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber are shown in Fig. 4a. As the result indicates the employment of WWB and treated sisal fiber increased compressive strength at 28 days. This is because the employment of fiber can tighten the matrix of concrete cement with aggregates at a small addition of 0.25% WWB. However, increasing the doses of WWB from 0.25 to 1% reduces the compressive strength of concrete at 28 days. This is because the higher substitution of WWB in concrete can reduce cement binding capability.Also, concrete contains WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber at 0.25% WWB has higher compressive strength compared to the control mixture at 56 days. However, increasing the dose of WWB in concrete up to 1% significantly lessens the compressive strength of concrete at 56 days of age. Besides these, concrete with WWB and treated sisal fiber has higher compressive strength than the only addition of WWB in concrete.Furthermore, at 180 days of concrete age, the compressive strength of concrete having WWB fiber at 0.25% with and without treated sisal fiber is higher than the control mixture. However, raising the dose of WWB in the concrete mixture decreases the compressive strength of the concrete at 180 days. Similarly as mentioned in concrete 56 days, at 180 days of concrete age with 0.25% WWB and treated sisal fibers have higher strength compared to the only substitution of 0.25% WWB fiber. So, WB25 increased compressive strength by 34.6, 7.42, and 3.6% respectively at 28, 56, and 180 days of concrete age. This finding is similar to the result of Adnan & Dawood41, found the optimum compressive strength of concrete by 1.5% employment of plastic container as a fiber which enhanced compressive strength by 42.08% compared to the control concrete.Generally, have seen 0.25% WWB with treated sisal fiber significantly enhanced the compressive strength of concrete at 28, 56, and 180 days. So, it is advantageous to use WWB at 0.25% with treated sisal fiber to improve concrete strength and to reduce environmental pollution challenging the world due to waste plastic bottles.Figure 4b shows the result of splitting tensile strength of concrete having treated sisal fiber and WWB fiber at 28 days of curing age. As the result indicates the control concrete has the lowest tensile strength than all other concrete samples. However, incorporating WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber in concrete improved the splitting tensile strength. Employment of WWB fiber in concrete significantly increased the splitting tensile strength and raising the doses of WWB fiber in concrete more increased the splitting tensile strength. This is because WWB is a ductile material that can resist tensile force.Also, concrete incorporated with WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber has the highest splitting tensile strength. Specifically, the concrete specimen having treated sisal fiber and WWB fiber designed WF100 highly increased the splitting tensile strength of concrete by 26.67% compared to the control concrete mixture. This is because both WWB and sisal fibers are ductile materials that can enhance the tension resistance of concrete32.The present result agrees with the study of Mohammed & Mohammed42, found concrete reinforcement by polyethylene fiber potentially enhances the splitting tensile strength. Also, Mokhtar et al.20 studied waste plastic materials in concrete and found the incorporation of waste plastic fiber significantly enhances the tensile strength of concrete. Hence, this study reported that waste plastic fibers can replicate the importance of steel fiber in concrete while potentially reducing environmental pollution due to waste plastic materials. Likewise, sisal fiber employment in concrete significantly improves the splitting tensile strength of concrete, and increasing the fiber dose increases the tensile strength resistance43,44.Fig. 4Concrete containing waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers a) concrete compressive strength at 28, 56, and 180 days of concrete age and b) Splitting strength at 28 days of concrete age.Full size imageWater absorptionThe concrete water absorption test result for concrete having different doses of WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber is shown in Fig. 5. As the result indicates the water absorption of concrete containing WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber is lower than the control concrete. Also, increasing the dose of wastewater fiber in concrete lessens water absorption. The concrete specimen WB100 has reduced water absorption by 6.78% compared to the control concrete. This is due to the WWB fiber can make denser concrete structures by tighten the concrete matrix cement with aggregates and consequently, mitigate the penetration of water45.The control concrete specimen has higher water absorption than concrete-employed WWB and treated sisal fibers. However, concrete samples having both WWB and treated sisal fibers have higher water absorption than concrete samples having only WWB. This may be because sisal fiber is a hydrophilic material that can absorb water and increase the mass of water in the concrete matrix.The present study for water absorption result agrees with Nasr et al.46 studied nylon-based waste plastic materials for concrete mixture and found that the incorporation of waste plastic fiber lessens concrete water absorption. Hence, it is crucial to migrate moisture and water in the concrete matrix which can cause corrosion of steel bars in the reinforced steel concrete and consequently can affect concrete strength and durability47,48. However, the high substitution of waste synthetic materials increases the water absorption of concrete49, which is due to the high amount of fibers that can form voids in concrete hence water easily penetrates32.Fig. 5Water absorption for concrete containing waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers.Full size imageElevated temperature and crack patternThe concrete mass loss and strength change due to elevated temperature for concrete contain WWB and treated sisal fibers are shown in Fig. 6(a, b). As the result in Fig. 6a indicates the reinforcement of concrete with WWB fiber significantly increased the mass loss of concrete at 200, 300, and 400 °C elevated temperatures. Especially, increasing the dose of WWB fiber in concrete consistently increased the mass losses. Also, concrete incorporated WWB fiber highly lost mass at 300 and 400 °C. This is because of the WWB fiber’s low heat resistance50.Besides these, concrete containing WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber has the lowest mass loss compared to all concrete samples. Especially, concrete employed WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber has very low mass loss at 300 °C elevated temperature. This is due to sisal fiber heat resistance, also treated sisal fiber makes a denser concrete structure that can protect from easy heat entrance. Also, this is due to the surface treatment of natural fibers by pozzolana increases the thermal resistance of the fiber51,52.As shown in Fig. 6b, concrete containing WWB fiber has lower strength at each tested elevated temperature. Also, raising the content of WWB fiber in the concrete significantly lessens the strength of the concrete. This is due to the ability of WWB to melt by heat that can lose the bond between the concrete matrixes and consequently lessen the strength. However, the addition of treated sisal fiber on concrete containing WWB fiber improved the strength at 200, 300, and 400 oC compared to concrete containing only WWB and control concrete as well. That is due to the treated sisal fiber inter-facial bond with cement and aggregates which can form dense concrete structures hence, heat cannot easily penetrate inside the concrete matrix which improves the strength at elevated temperatures.Furthermore, Tayebi & Nematzadeh50, studied different elevated temperature effects on compacted nylon waste and found the employment of nylon-based waste resists 300 °C elevated temperature, however, at 600 °C the mechanical properties of concrete significantly dropped due to the total burning of the nylon in the concrete matrix.Fig. 6Concrete containing waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers in different elevated temperatures a) mass loss and b) strength at 200, 300, and 400 °C.Full size imageThe physical property of concrete contains WWB and treated sisal fibers respectively at 400 °C and 200 °C is shown in Fig. 7(a, b), and in Fig. 7(c, d) there is a broken part of the concrete specimen heated at 400 °C. As the result indicates the surface of the concrete cube having WWB and treated sisal fiber at 400 °C is burnt, this occurs due to WWB’s lower heat resistance which has been burnt at 400 oC. However, at 200 oC there is an indication of melting of WWB due to there being a dark gray color on some parts of the cube.Also, as Fig. 7(c, d) indicates inside the broken part of concrete employed with WWB and treated sisal fibers, there is no WWB visible and there is treated sisal fiber inside the concrete matrix. Hence, this indicates the treated sisal fiber can resist heat may be due to the surface being coated by calcined bentonite. Tayebi & Nematzadeh50, found concrete employing waste plastic fiber gets color change after exposing it to 300 oC elevated temperature. So, this study also found a black dot on the surface of the concrete due to burnt waste plastic material incorporated in the concrete.The result of the crack pattern is shown in Fig. 7(e-g). As the result indicates concrete incorporated with WWB and treated sisal fibers has a lower crack width than control concrete and concrete having only WWB fiber. However, the addition of WWB fiber in concrete also reduced the crack width/opening compared to the control mixture. This is due to the WWB and treated sisal fibers having ductile properties that can resist tension force and treated sisal fiber more reduced crack opening due to the interfacial bond between the concrete matrix and treated sisal fiber28. On the contrary, the control concrete is broken in half, which is basically due to the concrete being brittle.Farooq et al. and Bui et al.53 studied the waste polyethylene fiber employment in concrete. The study found waste polyethylene fiber reduced the crack opening and reported increasing the dose of waste polyethylene fiber significantly reduces crack width. The same for natural fiber employment in the concrete highly reduces crack occurrence and propagation54,55,56. Therefore, the present study found the incorporation of both WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber together potentially reduced the crack width.Fig. 7Concrete cube containing waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers at elevated temperature a) 400 oC b) 200 oC c) broken top part shown @ a), and d) inside shown @ c) and concrete cylinder crack pattern for e) waste water bottle fiber and treated sisal fiber f) only waste water bottle fiber, and g) control concrete.Full size imageAcid resistanceFigure 8 (a, b) shows the strength and mass loss of concrete containing WWB and treated sisal fibers in a 5% HCl solution. The employment of WWB fiber in concrete with and without treated sisal fiber has a higher compressive strength at 180 days cured in a 5% HCl solution. This is due to the permeability of WWB fiber that barrier the penetration of acid. However, increasing the dose of WWB fiber in concrete significantly reduces the strength. This may be due to the higher existence of WWB can reduce the cement binding and form pores compared to the smaller addition of WWB fiber.The employment of WWB fiber with treated sisal fiber in concrete has more strength in 5% HCl solution at 180 days of age. This is due to the pozzolanic surface treatment of sisal fiber makes a dense concrete matrix that can mitigate the penetration of HCl and consequently form higher strength. This finding agrees with the result of Aarthi & Arunachalam’s57 study on concrete-employed polyethylene fiber that was immersed in a solution of 3% dilute sulfuric acid. Hence, this study found the incorporation of polyethylene enhanced concrete weight loss by 7.93% compared to the control concrete. This is basically due to the added waste polyethylene fiber tightening and holding the concrete matrix, especially for the present study WWB and treated sisal fibers can form bonds between the cement paste and aggregates consequently barrier the penetration of acid in the concrete matrix57,58.The result of concrete mass loss within 24 h at room temperature after being taken out from the 5% HCl solution is shown in Fig. 8b. The mass loss of concrete employed WWB and treated sisal fibers in the concrete makes a dense concrete structure that cannot lose mass. However, increasing the dose of WWB fiber in the concrete mixture with treated sisal fiber can increase mass loss which is basically due to the binding reduction of cement by the increase of WWB fiber which might form pores in the concrete matrix and consequently, the higher mass loss or fast dry after taken from 5% HCl solution.Fig. 8Concrete containing waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers in 5% HCl solution a) strength and b) mass loss at 200, 300, and 400 oC.Full size imageConclusionsThe present study investigated the effect of using different WWB fiber with and without treated sisal fiber in a concrete mixture. Based on the finding the following conclusions have been reached.
1)
The addition of WWB fiber in concrete improved workability and lessened the fresh density of concrete.
2)
Concrete containing WWB and treated sisal fibers increased compressive strength at 28, 56, and 180 days. So, sample WF25 increased compressive strength by 34.6, 7.42, and 3.6% compared to control concrete respectively at 28, 56, and 180 days of concrete age.
3)
The addition of WWB and treated sisal fibers to the concrete significantly enhanced its splitting tensile strength. Specifically, concrete sample WF100 greatly increased the splitting tensile strength of concrete by 26.67% compared to the control mixture.
4)
Concrete having only WWB fiber without treated sisal fiber reduced water absorption, increased mass loss, and lessened strength at elevated temperatures of 200, 300, and 400 °C.
5)
The employment of WWB fiber reduced the crack width of concrete compared to the control concrete, while concrete containing both WWB and treated sisal fiber significantly reduced the crack width of concrete.
6)
The concrete reinforced with WWB and treated sisal fiber has higher strength and lower mass loss in 5% HCl solution than the control concrete.
Generally, the present study found that the incorporation of WWB fiber and treated sisal fiber in concrete is beneficial for improving the mechanical and durability properties of concrete compared to the employment of only WWB fiber. So, this study is significant for implementing improved performance of construction materia by WWB and treated sisal fibers, as well as supporting the reduction of plastic bottle waste from the environment.
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
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PubMed Google ScholarContributionsTsion Amsalu Fode: Conceptualization, Data-curation, Investigation, Visualization, Writing original draft, Writing-review &editing. Yusufu Abeid Chande Jande: Formal analysis, Reviewing & editing, supervision. Thomas Kivevele and Nima Rahbar: Reviewing & editing, supervision.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Tsion Amsalu Fode.Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Reprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleFode, T.A., Jande, Y.A.C., Kivevele, T. et al. Effect of waste water bottle and treated sisal fibers on the durability and mechanical properties of concrete.
Sci Rep 15, 7945 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92306-zDownload citationReceived: 26 November 2024Accepted: 26 February 2025Published: 07 March 2025DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92306-zShare this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy to clipboard
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KeywordsSisal fiberWaste water bottleConcrete, Environment