Researchers warn that synthetic chemicals in various products, including carpets, clothes, furniture, adhesives, food packaging, and nonstick cookware, pose a significant threat to infants in Africa.
Over the past two decades, the chemicals, known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), or “forever chemicals,” have become a significant public health concern in Europe and North America. Emerging data from African countries point to the pervasive nature of the problem in the continent.
PFAS exposure is linked to liver damage, thyroid diseases, cancer, and reproductive health problems, and can be especially dangerous for infants and children, experts say.
Countries like the U.S. are beginning to pass laws to control PFAS levels in drinking water systems. Still, regulations that target PFAS are “rare across African countries,” a recent study notes.
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Synthetic chemicals found in a wide range of products, from textiles to food packaging, and now even breast milk, are endangering infants’ lives in Africa, researchers say.
Scientists are still investigating exactly how these “forever chemicals” affect babies, but there’s reason to worry, according to David Koli Essumang, co-author of a study conducted in Ghana.
“These chemicals accumulate [in the body]. So, if newborns are exposed to them right from birth, as they grow up, the impacts can manifest,” says Essumang, a professor of environmental chemistry at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana.
The chemicals, also known as Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, are notoriously resistant to degradation, hence their reputation for persisting “forever.” They’ve shown up on every continent on Earth, including the Antarctica, and pose a serious threat to humans and wildlife.
The world over, new mothers are advised to breastfeed because mother’s milk is hailed as the best baby food. But research from African countries shows that even breastfed babies can’t escape the forever chemicals.
A team of researchers found these synthetic chemicals in breast milk samples from women in Ghana. Breast milk is made up of water and nutrients extracted from the bloodstream. PFAS compounds present in the mother’s bloodstream can pass into her breast milk.
Pick up truck carrying plastic bottles in Lagos, Nigeria.
Pick up truck carrying plastic bottles in Lagos, Nigeria. Image courtesy of Koutchika Lihouenou Gaspard via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0).
PFAS exposure has been linked to liver damage, thyroid diseases and even cancer. These compounds can interfere with the endocrine system that regulates vital functions like growth, metabolism, reproduction and the immune system. Pregnant women and children are at especially high risk: PFAS are also linked to high blood pressure during pregnancy and low birth weight, and some studies suggest they dampen the effectiveness of vaccines.
The chemicals, with their carbon chains binding tightly with fluorine atoms, are stable, non-reactive, and are used in the production of materials that need to be heat-, water- or oil-resistant — things like paper-based food packaging, clothing, and nonstick cookware. One of the best-known of these applications is Teflon, whose nonstick property derives from perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a type of PFAS whose production has been phased out in the U.S. due to its harmful health impacts.
Rainer Lohmann, an expert in environmental chemistry at the University of Rhode Island, U.S., describes exposure to forever chemicals as “the cost of living in an industrial society,” saying that in this day and age it’s almost impossible to escape these human-made pollutants.
Nearly all U.S. residents have measurable levels of PFAS in their blood, a widely cited study shows.
Over the past two decades, PFAS have been recognized as a major public health concern in Europe and North America. But research coming out of African countries now points to the pervasive nature of the problem.
Mothers and children wait in Changanine community (Chibuto District), Mozambique to collect their seeds from the Red Cross. The community has been hit very hard by the current drought, many have lost their crops and locals have to walk up to five kilometres to dig for water. Image by Aurélie Marrier d'Unienville / IFRC via Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0).
Mother feeding her child in Mozambique. Image courtesy of Aurélie Marrier d’Unienville / IFRC via Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0).
Lohmann says the dangers to babies arise from being exposed in the womb and ingestion of PFAS through breast milk. Even formula-fed infants may not be safe if the water used to make formula contains these chemicals. Children generally have a higher ratio of PFAS to their body weight, Lohmann says; pound for pound, they breathe in more air and eat and drink more fluids than an adult.
Adewale Adewuyi, who trained in industrial chemistry in Nigeria and is now a visiting professor at Ulm University, Germany, says he was shocked when researchers flagged the presence of PFAS in breast milk at a conference a few years ago. He says he has wondered since about their presence in drinking water sources.
“Nobody expected to have PFAS in environmental water systems, like surface water or underground water, because these are major sources of drinking water for us,” says Adewuyi, who published his research in a 2024 paper. His study showed PFAS were present in discharges from wastewater treatment plants, in surface water, and even in tap water and bottled water available for sale in some African countries like Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana.
Essumang’s initial work also focused on PFAS prevalence in the environment and drinking water sources in Ghana. He investigated the presence of perfluoroalkyl acids, a kind of PFAS, in the Pra and Kakum rivers in southern Ghana, and in the tap water sourced from these rivers. The Pra is a source of freshwater for more than 4 million Ghanaians. The 2016 study found that PFAS were present in both the river water and the tap water samples, suggesting that existing water treatment technologies were ineffective against PFAS contamination.
It’s a similar story in Nigeria, whose water treatment systems aren’t designed to remove pollutants like PFAS, according to Adewuyi.
Essumang says the next step for him was to examine samples drawn from humans, including breast milk, to understand how the body processes these chemicals. Previous research found forever chemicals in Ugandan women’s breast milk; however, the authors of that study concluded the milk was still safe for babies. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency advises women to seek medical advice before making any breastfeeding decisions.
Clothes for sale in Tanzania.
Clothes for sale in Tanzania. Image courtesy of Helen Amirian via Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0)
Humans can be exposed to PFAS through consuming contaminated water. But PFAS can also be present in food and even in the air we breathe in the form of dust.
In the environment, these chemicals tend to build up into toxic substances that can’t be eliminated quickly enough or at all. For example, if fish are exposed to water containing PFAS, the concentration of these chemicals in their bodies accumulates over time. Doctors often advise pregnant and lactating women to eat more protein, including fish, milk and eggs, meaning they may unwittingly be exposing their unborn babies and breastfeeding infants to more of these chemicals.
Limiting the risk to humans from PFAS requires more research, stricter regulations, and access to advanced treatment technologies, according to Essumang. He adds that apart from treatment, even accessing the technology needed to detect PFAS is a challenge. He says he’s looking forward to arming himself with more data on PFAS before lobbying Ghana’s Environmental Protection Agency to take action.
Countries like the U.S. are beginning to pass laws to control PFAS levels in drinking water systems. In 2024, the EPA set limits for five types of PFAS and mixtures of five PFAS in tap water.
However, similar regulations targeting PFAS are “rare across African countries,” a recent study noted.
Citations:
Jonathan, J. W. A., Essumang, D. K., Bentum, J. K., Kabotso, D. E., Gborgblorvor, I. R., Eshun, A., … Davordzi, E. (2024). Exploring perfluoroalkyl substances contamination in human breast milk: First Ghanaian study. Chemosphere, 369, 143769. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143769
Calafat, A. M., Wong, L., Kuklenyik, Z., Reidy, J. A., & Needham, L. L. (2007). Polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in the U.S. population: Data from the national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES) 2003-2004 and comparisons with NHANES 1999-2000. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(11), 1596-1602. doi:10.1289/ehp.10598
Adewuyi, A., & Li, Q. (2024). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances contamination of drinking water sources in Africa: Pollution sources and possible treatment methods. Chemosphere, 365, 143368. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143368
Awotwi, A., Anornu, G. K., Quaye-Ballard, J., Annor, T., & Forkuo, E. K. (2017). Analysis of climate and anthropogenic impacts on runoff in the Lower Pra River Basin of Ghana. Heliyon, 3(12), e00477. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00477
Matovu, H., Sillanpää, M., & Ssebugere, P. (2019). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in mothers’ breast milk and associated health risk to nursing infants in Uganda. Science of The Total Environment, 692, 1106-1115. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.335
Aborode, A. T., Adesola, R. O., Idris, I., Sakariyau Adio, W., Olapade, S., Oluwafisayo, G., … Jinadu, N. A. (2025). Challenges associated with PFAS detection method in Africa. Environmental Health Insights, 19. doi:10.1177/11786302241310430
Miiro, A., Odume, O. N., Nyakairu, G. W., Odongo, S., Matovu, H., Drago Kato, C., … Ssebugere, P. (2024). Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in aquatic ecosystems and wastewater treatment works in Africa: Occurrence, ecological implications, and future perspectives. Chemosphere, 367, 143590. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143590
Essumang, D. K., Eshun, A., Hogarh, J. N., Bentum, J. K., Adjei, J. K., Negishi, J., … Masunaga, S. (2017). Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in the Pra and Kakum river basins and associated tap water in Ghana. Science of The Total Environment, 579, 729-735. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.035
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