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Multiphoton 3D lithography

Abstract

Multiphoton 3D lithography (MP3DL) is a mesoscale additive manufacturing technique (product dimensions range from nanometres to centimetres) that uses confined non-linear light–matter interactions to produce 3D structures. The use of ultrafast pulsed lasers to induce photocrosslinking enables rapid optical 3D printing of diverse materials ranging from pure organic natural resins to fully inorganic amorphous and crystalline ceramics. MP3DL allows for the direct writing of unrestricted, true free-form geometries, reaching 100 nm feature size and millimetre-scale object dimensions; further, the dose dependence of the photomodification depth (degree of conversion) allows for 3D greyscale and 4D patterning. The throughput of the technique is constantly improving with the recent development of novel light sources, synthesis of special materials and novel exposure strategies. In this Primer, we introduce the photophysical principles behind the technique, describe experimental methods, highlight the milestones achieved, review promising applications and discuss reproducibility, limitations and upcoming optimizations. Finally, we provide an outlook on future trends and the potential to exploit artificial intelligence for mesoscale multi-material 4D advanced additive manufacturing.

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Fig. 1: Material absorption–excitation spectra and energy diagram.

Fig. 2: Intensity spatial distribution and thresholds.

Fig. 3: A typical set-up for MP3DL.

Fig. 4: Manufacturing steps of MP3DL.

Fig. 5: Current achievements of MP3DL.

Fig. 6: Post-processing techniques.

Fig. 7: Example applications of MP3DL.

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Acknowledgements

This research was carried out in the framework of the ‘Universities’ Excellence Initiative’ programme by the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports of the Republic of Lithuania under the agreement with the Research Council of Lithuania (project no. S-A-UEI-23-6). Additional support for E.S. and M.M. was received through the EU LASERLAB-EUROPE JRA-extension (grant agreement no. 871124, Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme). S.M. conducted research with the support of JST CREST, Japan (grant number JPMJCR1905) and JSPS KAKENHI (grant number JP23H00167).

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Authors and Affiliations

Laser Nanophotonics Group, Laser Research Center, Physics Faculty, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania

Edvinas Skliutas & Mangirdas Malinauskas

Laboratory of Materials Science, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania

Greta Merkininkaitė

Faculty of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan

Shoji Maruo

Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Wenxin Zhang, Wenyuan Chen, Weiting Deng & Julia Greer

Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Julia Greer

Department of Physics and Research Center OPTIMAS, Rheinland Pfälzische Technische Universität Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany

Georg von Freymann

Fraunhofer Institute of Industrial Mathematics ITWM, Kaiserslautern, Germany

Georg von Freymann

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Edvinas Skliutas

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