Abstract
The integration of embodied cognition and cognitive load theory offers a promising framework for advancing educational practices. Cognitive load theory emphasizes the constraints of working memory and the importance of managing cognitive load through effective instructional design. Embodied cognition highlights the role of physical actions, such as gestures, object manipulation and whole-body activities, in enhancing cognitive processes. This Review highlights the importance of bridging these frameworks by exploring their theoretical foundations and synthesizing empirical evidence on the benefits of physical actions in learning. Here we present the introduction of the relevance–integration taxonomy as a transformative advancement in embodied cognition research, offering new perspectives for educational interventions. Additionally, we identify current gaps in cognitive load theory applications and propose future research directions to unify these approaches, aiming to optimize learning outcomes across diverse educational settings. This work has broad implications for advancing evidence-based instructional design.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access through your institution
Change institution
Buy or subscribe
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Learn more
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles
$119.00 per year
only $9.92 per issue
Learn more
Buy this article
Purchase on SpringerLink
Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Additional access options:
Log in
Learn about institutional subscriptions
Read our FAQs
Contact customer support
Fig. 1: Embodied cognition and CLT in education.
Fig. 2: Integration of embodied cognition and CLT in education.
References
Castro-Alonso, J. C., de Koning, B. B., Fiorella, L. & Paas, F. Five strategies for optimizing instructional materials: instructor- and learner-managed cognitive load. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 33, 1379–1407 (2021).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Jaffe, L. E., Lindell, D., Sullivan, A. M. & Huang, G. C. Clear skies ahead: optimizing the learning environment for critical thinking from a qualitative analysis of interviews with expert teachers. Perspect. Med. Educ. 8, 289–297 (2019).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Paas, F. & van Merriënboer, J. J. Cognitive-load theory: methods to manage working memory load in the learning of complex tasks. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 29, 394–398 (2020).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J. J. & Paas, F. Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 31, 261–292 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J. J. & Paas, F. Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 10, 251–296 (1998).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. Cognitive load theory and instructional design: recent developments. Educ. Psychol. 38, 1–4 (2003).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Chen, O., Paas, F. & Sweller, J. A cognitive load theory approach to defining and measuring task complexity through element interactivity. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 35, 63 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, J. V. Learning and embodied cognition: a review and proposal. Psychol. Learn. Teach. 17, 128–143 (2018).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Wilson, M. Six views of embodied cognition. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 9, 625–636 (2002).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., Zhang, S., de Koning, B. B. & Paas, F. Research avenues supporting embodied cognition in learning and instruction. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 36, 10 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Risko, E. F. & Gilbert, S. J. Cognitive offloading. Trends Cogn. Sci. 20, 676–688 (2016).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Yu, K. et al. Production rather than observation: comparison between the roles of embodiment and conceptual metaphor in L2 lexical tone learning. Learn. Instr. 92, 101905 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mavilidi, M. F. et al. in The Body, Embodiment, and Education (ed. Stolz, S. A.)183–203 (Routledge, 2021).
Sepp, S., Howard, S. J., Tindall-Ford, S., Agostinho, S. & Paas, F. Cognitive load theory and human movement: towards an integrated model of working memory. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 31, 293–317 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Macken, L. & Ginns, P. Pointing and tracing gestures may enhance anatomy and physiology learning. Med. Teach. 36, 596–601 (2014).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Ginns, P., Hu, F. T., Byrne, E. & Bobis, J. Learning by tracing worked examples. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 30, 160–169 (2016).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Lusk, M. M. & Atkinson, R. K. Animated pedagogical agents: does their degree of embodiment impact learning from static or animated worked examples? Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 21, 747–764 (2007).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Lyu, C. & Deng, S. Effectiveness of embodied learning on learning performance: a meta-analysis based on the cognitive load theory perspective. Learn. Individ. Differ. 116, 102564 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
De Bruijn-Smolders, M. & Prinsen, F. Effective student engagement with blended learning: a systematic review. Heliyon 10, e39439 (2024).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Li, M., Han, X. & Cheng, J. Handbook of Educational Reform Through Blended Learning Ch. 5 (Springer Nature, 2024).
Mhlongo, S., Mbatha, K., Ramatsetse, B. & Dlamini, R. Challenges, opportunities, and prospects of adopting and using smart digital technologies in learning environments: an iterative review. Heliyon 9, e16348 (2023).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
He, C. et al. Exploring embodied cognition and brain dynamics under multi-tasks target detection in immerse projector-based augmented reality (IPAR) scenarios. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 32, 3476–3485 (2024).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Mansour, N., Aras, C., Staarman, J. K. & Alotaibi, S. B. M. Embodied learning of science concepts through augmented reality technology. Educ. Inf. Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13120-0 (2024).
Khazaie, S. & Derakhshan, A. Extending embodied cognition through robot’s augmented reality in English for medical purposes classrooms. Engl. Specif. Purp. 75, 15–36 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Conrad, M., Kablitz, D. & Schumann, S. Learning effectiveness of immersive virtual reality in education and training: a systematic review of findings. Comput. Educ. X Real. 4, 100053 (2024).
Google Scholar
Bagher, M., Sajjadi, P., Wallgrün, J. O., LaFemina, P. & Klippel, A. Virtual reality for geospatial education: immersive technologies enhance sense of embodiment. Cartogr. Geogr. Inf. Sci. 50, 233–248 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Xiao, K. et al. Hand motions reveal attentional status and subliminal semantic processing: a mouse-tracking technique. Brain Sci. 13, 1267 (2023).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Shvarts, A. & van Helden, G. Embodied learning at a distance: from sensory-motor experience to constructing and understanding a sine graph. Math. Think. Learn. 25, 409–437 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mavilidi, M., Ouwehand, K., Okely, A. D., Chandler, P. & Paas, F. in Advances in Cognitive Load Theory (eds. Tindall-Ford, S. et al.) 103–118 (Routledge, 2019).
Mavilidi, M. F. et al. A narrative review of school-based physical activity for enhancing cognition and learning: the importance of relevancy and integration. Front. Psychol. 9, 2079 (2018).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, M. et al. Embodied learning in the classroom: effects on primary school children’s attention and foreign language vocabulary learning. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 43, 45–54 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Hanham, J., Castro‐Alonso, J. C. & Chen, O. Integrating cognitive load theory with other theories, within and beyond educational psychology. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 93, 239–250 (2023).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Khatin-Zadeh, O., Farsani, D., Eskandari, Z. & Marmolejo-Ramos, F. The roles of motion, gesture, and embodied action in the processing of mathematical concepts. Front. Psychol. 13, 969341 (2022).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychol. Rev. 63, 81–97 (1956).
ArticleCASPubMedGoogle Scholar
Cowan, N. The magical mystery four: how is working memory capacity limited, and why? Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 19, 51–57 (2010).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. & Hitch, G. J. in Recent Advances in Learning and Motivation (ed. Bower, G. A.) 47–90 (Academic Press, 1974).
Cowan, N. The many faces of working memory and short-term storage. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 24, 1158–1170 (2017).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Cowan, N. George Miller's magical number of immediate memory in retrospect: observations on the faltering progression of science. Psychol. Rev. 122, 536–541 (2015).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Xu, K. M. et al. An evolutionary approach to motivation and learning: differentiating biologically primary and secondary knowledge. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 36, 45 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Paas, F. & Sweller, J. An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 24, 27–45 (2012).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. The split‐attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 62, 233–246 (1992).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Ellerton, P. On critical thinking and content knowledge: a critique of the assumptions of cognitive load theory. Think. Skills Creat. 43, 100975 (2022).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
De Jong, T. Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought. Instr. Sci. 38, 105–134 (2010).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Chen, O., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F. & Sweller, J. Extending cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion: evidence from the spacing effect. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 30, 483–501 (2018).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Feldon, D. F., Callan, G., Juth, S. & Jeong, S. Cognitive load as motivational cost. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 31, 319–337 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Evans, P., Vansteenkiste, M., Parker, P., Kingsford-Smith, A. & Zhou, S. Cognitive load theory and its relationships with motivation: a self-determination theory perspective. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 36, 7 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
van Riesen, S. A., Gijlers, H., Anjewierden, A. A. & de Jong, T. The influence of prior knowledge on the effectiveness of guided experiment design. Interact. Learn. Environ. 30, 17–33 (2022).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Myhill, D. & Brackley, M. Making connections: teachers’ use of children’s prior knowledge in whole class discourse. Br. J. Educ. Stud. 52, 263–275 (2004).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Phuong, W. T. N. Difficulties in studying writing of English-majored sophomores at a university in Vietnam. Eur. J. Educ. Stud. 8, 314 (2021).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Emami, Z. & Chau, T. The effects of visual distractors on cognitive load in a motor imagery brain–computer interface. Behav. Brain Res. 378, 112240 (2020).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Zickerick, B. et al. Differential effects of interruptions and distractions on working memory processes in an ERP study. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 14, 84 (2020).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Kalyuga, S. & Singh, A.-M. Rethinking the boundaries of cognitive load theory in complex learning. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 28, 831–852 (2016).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Reese, H. W. The learning-by-doing principle. Behav. Dev. Bull. 17, 1–19 (2011).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Kosmas, P. & Zaphiris, P. Words in action: investigating students’ language acquisition and emotional performance through embodied learning. Innov. Lang. Learn. Teach. 14, 317–332 (2020).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Hirose, N. An ecological approach to embodiment and cognition. Cogn. Syst. Res. 3, 289–299 (2002).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Da Rold, F. Defining embodied cognition: the problem of situatedness. New Ideas Psychol. 51, 9–14 (2018).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. Enactivism meets mechanism: tensions & congruities in cognitive science. Minds Mach. 33, 153–184 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception: Classic Edition (Psychology Press, 1979).
Brown, J. S., Collins, A. & Duguid, P. Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educ. Res. 18, 32–42 (1989).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Varela Francisco, J., Evan, T. & Eleanor, R. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience (MIT Press, 1991).
Alibali, M. W. & Nathan, M. J. Embodiment in mathematics teaching and learning: evidence from learners’ and teachers’ gestures. J. Learn. Sci. 21, 247–286 (2012).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Roth, W.-M. & Lawless, D. Scientific investigations, metaphorical gestures, and the emergence of abstract scientific concepts. Learn. Instr. 12, 285–304 (2002).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Zhang, S., de Koning, B. B. & Paas, F. Finger pointing to support learning from split-attention examples. Educ. Psychol. 43, 207–227 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Yohannan, D. G. et al. ‘Air anatomy’—teaching complex spatial anatomy using simple hand gestures. Anat. Sci. Educ. 15, 552–565 (2022).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Agostinho, S. et al. Giving learning a helping hand: finger tracing of temperature graphs on an iPad. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 27, 427–443 (2015).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Pouw, W. T., Van Gog, T. & Paas, F. An embedded and embodied cognition review of instructional manipulatives. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 26, 51–72 (2014).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Reed, C. L., Grubb, J. D. & Steele, C. Hands up: attentional prioritization of space near the hand. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 32, 166–177 (2006).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Cosman, J. D. & Vecera, S. P. Attention affects visual perceptual processing near the hand. Psychol. Sci. 21, 1254–1258 (2010).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, A. J. & Schneider, B. Linguistic and gestural coordination: do learners converge in collaborative dialogue? In International Conf. Educational Data Mining (eds Sinclair, A. J. & Schneider, B.) 431–438 (International Educational Data Mining Society, 2021).
De Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. & Paas, F. Attention guidance in learning from a complex animation: seeing is understanding? Learn. Instr. 20, 111–122 (2010).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Manches, A. & O’Malley, C. Tangibles for learning: a representational analysis of physical manipulation. Pers. Ubiquitous Comput. 16, 405–419 (2012).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Lindgren, R. & Johnson-Glenberg, M. Emboldened by embodiment: six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educ. Res. 42, 445–452 (2013).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Lindgren, R., Tscholl, M., Wang, S. & Johnson, E. Enhancing learning and engagement through embodied interaction within a mixed reality simulation. Comput. Educ. 95, 174–187 (2016).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Howard, M. C. & Davis, M. M. A meta-analysis of augmented reality programs for education and training. Virtual Real. 27, 2871–2894 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Stodden, D. et al. Exploration: an overarching focus for holistic development. Braz. J. Motor Behav. 15, 301–321 (2021).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mavilidi, M.-F., Okely, A. D., Chandler, P., Cliff, D. P. & Paas, F. Effects of integrated physical exercises and gestures on preschool children’s foreign language vocabulary learning. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 27, 413–426 (2015).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mavilidi, M. F. et al. Effects of different types of classroom physical activity breaks on children’s on‐task behaviour, academic achievement and cognition. Acta Paediatr. 109, 158–165 (2020).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Mavilidi, M.-F., Okely, A., Chandler, P., Domazet, S. L. & Paas, F. Immediate and delayed effects of integrating physical activity into preschool children’s learning of numeracy skills. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 166, 502–519 (2018).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Mavilidi, M.F. et al. Upgrading the role of context in the effects of physical activity on cognition across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. (in the press).
Mavilidi, M. F. et al. Meta-analysis of movement-based interventions to aid academic and behavioral outcomes: a taxonomy of relevance and integration. Educ. Res. Rev. 37, 100478 (2022).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Sweller, J. Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 22, 123–138 (2010).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Egger, F., Benzing, V., Conzelmann, A. & Schmidt, M. Boost your brain, while having a break! The effects of long-term cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children’s executive functions and academic achievement. PLoS ONE 14, e0212482 (2019).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Toumpaniari, K., Loyens, S., Mavilidi, M.-F. & Paas, F. Preschool children’s foreign language vocabulary learning by embodying words through physical activity and gesturing. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 27, 445–456 (2015).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Cappello, N., Anttila, E. & Cañabate, D. Body as classroom: movement-based performing arts as an approach to embodied transformative learning in a secondary school classroom. Int. J. Educ. Arts. 25, 1–22 (2024).
Duijzer, C. A., Shayan, S., Bakker, A., Van der Schaaf, M. F. & Abrahamson, D. Touchscreen tablets: coordinating action and perception for mathematical cognition. Front. Psychol. 8, 144 (2017).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Hutto, D. D., Kirchhoff, M. D. & Abrahamson, D. The enactive roots of STEM: rethinking educational design in mathematics. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 27, 371–389 (2015).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Fugate, J. M., Macrine, S. L. & Cipriano, C. The role of embodied cognition for transforming learning. Int. J. Sch. Educ. Psychol. 7, 274–288 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Beilock, S. How the Body Knows Its Mind: the Surprising Power of the Physical Environment to Influence How You Think and Feel (Simon and Schuster, 2015).
Skulmowski, A. & Rey, G. D. Embodied learning: introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cogn. Res. Princ. Implic. 3, 6 (2018).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
McKnight, R. R. et al. Virtual reality and augmented reality—translating surgical training into surgical technique. Curr. Rev. Musculoskelet. Med. 13, 663–674 (2020).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Hebbar, P. A., Vinod, S., Shah, A. K., Pashilkar, A. A. & Biswas, P. Cognitive load estimation in VR flight simulator. J. Eye Mov. Res. 15, 1–16 (2023).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Ayres, P., Lee, J. Y., Paas, F. & Van Merrienboer, J. J. The validity of physiological measures to identify differences in intrinsic cognitive load. Front. Psychol. 12, 702538 (2021).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Uytun, M. C. in Prefrontal Cortex (eds Starcevic, A. & Filipovic, B.) https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78697 (IntechOpen, 2018).
Levy, R. The prefrontal cortex: from monkey to man. Brain 147, 794–815 (2024).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Macedonia, M. Embodied learning: why at school the mind needs the body. Front. Psychol. 10, 2098 (2019).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Hu, F.-T., Ginns, P. & Bobis, J. Getting the point: tracing worked examples enhances learning. Learn. Instr. 35, 85–93 (2015).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Osborne, C., Wang, D. & Zhang, Q. Teaching Chinese Characters in the Digital Age: Insights on Current Trends and Future Directions Ch. 5 (Springer, 2024).
Bölek, K. A., De Jong, G. & Henssen, D. The effectiveness of the use of augmented reality in anatomy education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 11, 15292 (2021).
ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
Glantz, K., Durlach, N. I., Barnett, R. C. & Aviles, W. A. Virtual reality (VR) for psychotherapy: from the physical to the social environment. Psychotherapy 33, 464–473 (1996).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Mohammed, R., Kennedy-Clark, S. & Reimann, P. Using immersive and modelling environments to build scientific capacity in primary preservice teacher education. J. Comput. Educ. 6, 451–481 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Kovoor, J. G., Gupta, A. K. & Gladman, M. A. Validity and effectiveness of augmented reality in surgical education: a systematic review. Surgery 170, 88–98 (2021).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Hernandez Sibo, I. P., Gomez Celis, D. A. & Liou, S. Exploring the landscape of cognitive load in creative thinking: a systematic literature review. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 36, 24 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Adolph, K. E. & Hoch, J. E. Motor development: embodied, embedded, enculturated, and enabling. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 70, 141–164 (2019).
ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Ploetzner, R. & Fillisch, B. Not the silver bullet: learner-generated drawings make it difficult to understand broader spatiotemporal structures in complex animations. Learn. Instr. 47, 13–24 (2017).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Q. & Fiorella, L. Learning by drawing: when is it worth the time and effort? Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 66, 101990 (2021).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Wu, S. P. & Rau, M. A. How students learn content in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) through drawing activities. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 31, 87–120 (2019).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Skulmowski, A. Learning by doing or doing without learning? The potentials and challenges of activity-based learning. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 36, 28 (2024).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Skulmowski, A., Pradel, S., Kühnert, T., Brunnett, G. & Rey, G. D. Embodied learning using a tangible user interface: the effects of haptic perception and selective pointing on a spatial learning task. Comput. Educ. 92, 64–75 (2016).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Amico, G. & Schaefer, S. Implementing full‐body movements in a verbal memory task: searching for benefits but finding mainly costs. Mind Brain Educ. 15, 211–219 (2021).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
DiDomenico, A. & Nussbaum, M. A. Effects of different physical workload parameters on mental workload and performance. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 41, 255–260 (2011).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. Cognitive load theory: instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instr. Sci. 32, 1–8 (2004).
ArticleGoogle Scholar
Download references
Acknowledgements
We thank A. Kramer, J. Haegele and B. Tari for their feedback during revision to help to improve readability. We also thank Z. Liu for their help in drafting the initial versions of the two figures. This study was supported by Shenzhen Educational Research Funding (grant no. zdzb2014), the Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission Foundation (grant no. 202307313000096), the Social Science Foundation from China’s Ministry of Education (grant no. 23YJA880093), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant no. 2022M711174), the National Center for Mental Health Foundation (grant no. Z014), Research Excellence Scholarships of Shenzhen University (grant no. ZYZD2305), Research Funding for Society of Sport Science (grant no. PT2023030), the Natural Science Foundation of Shenzhen University (grant no. 000311) and the Guangdong Youth Health Research Fund (grant no. 2024WT006).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Body-Brain-Mind Laboratory, School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
Liye Zou, Zhihao Zhang & Yanxia Chen
School of Sport and Brain Health, Nanjing Sport University, Nanjing, China
Liye Zou
College of Physical Education and Science, East Normal China University, Shanghai, China
Liye Zou
School of Education, Faculty of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
Myrto Mavilidi
Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
Myrto Mavilidi
Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Limassol, Nicosia, Cyprus
Myrto Mavilidi
Department of Physical Education, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
Yanxia Chen
Research Group Degenerative and Chronic Diseases, Movement, Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Fabian Herold
Department of Psychology Education and Child Studies, Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Kim Ouwehand & Fred Paas
School of Education, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Fred Paas
Authors
Liye Zou
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
2. Zhihao Zhang
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
3. Myrto Mavilidi
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
4. Yanxia Chen
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
5. Fabian Herold
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
6. Kim Ouwehand
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
7. Fred Paas
View author publications
You can also search for this author inPubMedGoogle Scholar
Contributions
Conceptualization: L.Z. and F.P. Funding acquisition: L.Z. Project administration: L.Z. and F.P. Supervision: F.P. Visualization: L.Z., Z.Z., M.M. and F.H. Writing—original draft: all authors. Writing—review and editing: all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the final version of this manuscript.
Corresponding author
Correspondence to Liye Zou.
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Human Behaviour thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
Reprints and permissions
About this article
Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark
Cite this article
Zou, L., Zhang, Z., Mavilidi, M. et al. The synergy of embodied cognition and cognitive load theory for optimized learning. Nat Hum Behav (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02152-2
Download citation
Received:13 December 2024
Accepted:17 February 2025
Published:21 March 2025
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02152-2
Share this article
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Get shareable link
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Copy to clipboard
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative