by Feyzullah Tuna Aygün
Tawarij march in Karbala, Iraq, where Shia pilgrims mourn the death of Hussein. Source: Wiki CC
Iraq’s diverse social composition has increased its cultural richness, but has also paved the way for ethnic and sectarian tensions. After the overthrow of the Baath regime in 2003, ethnic and religious tensions have steadily increased, with conflicts between identity groups becoming one of the main threats to the stability and social cohesion of the country. In this piece I outline the reasons for this worrying development.
Firstly, in the post-2003 period, identity-based political structures have become stronger and institutionalised within state mechanisms. Secondly, laws adopted in parliament are increasingly organised to serve the interests of certain identity groups, showing the influence of identity politics on the legislative processes. Finally, rivalries and conflicts within identity groups demonstrate the degree to which identity politics has deepened not only between different ethnic and sectarian groups, but also within the same grouping. This rise of identity politics has become a threat to the political stability of the country.
Institutionalisation of Identity Politics
In the post-2003 period, state mechanisms have come under the influence of certain ethnic and sectarian groups such as Shias, Sunnis, and Kurds. While this practice may have been intended to increase the political representation for Iraq’s many ethnic, religious and sect-based identities, it has led to deep divisions between sectarian and ethnic groups.
In this process, identity politics also affected the relations between different components of society. Ethnic and sectarian identities have become the main factors shaping both political discourses and public policies. Even the distribution of services at the local level is often based on identity-based interests. This has led to a perception of injustice among citizens (particularly those marginalised by these arrangements) and made national integration more difficult.
In this historical process, identity politics has not only deepened social fragmentation, but has also negatively affected the functioning of Iraq’s governance mechanisms. Identity-based divisions have created a continuous crisis environment in the government formation processes by making reconciliation difficult. This has become a long-term effect of the institutionalisation of identities in Iraqi politics.
Identity-Based Approach in Legislative Processes
Iraq’s legislative processes have mostly been shaped to protect the interests of specific ethnic and sectarian identities. Decisions taken and laws enacted in the parliament are often the result of political bargaining between different groups. This situation has clearly demonstrated that legislative processes have become ensnared within an identity-based structure.
The approval of the General Amnesty Law, the Civil Status Law and the Land Restitution Law in the same 2025 parliamentary session was an example of identity-based politics in legislative processes. All three laws included regulations in favour of the interests of different identity groups. The General Amnesty Law specifically aimed to pardon members of sectarian groups who had been involved in conflicts, while the Civil Status Law provided a regulation in line with the norms of religious and sectarian identities. The Land Restitution Law, on the other hand, aimed to regulate the property rights of ethnic groups and to gain the support of Turkmen and Kurds in particular.
The concurrent voting of these laws can be explained by the efforts of political leaders to satisfy different identity groups. However, this situation clearly shows how identity-based politics shape legislative processes. As much as the content of the laws, their simultaneous approval also led to serious debate over their procedural legitimacy. Opposition MPs argued that these regulations were adopted in violation of legislative procedures and submitted a petition to the Federal Supreme Court, which was rejected.
Divisions within Identity Groups
The Shiite, Sunni and Kurdish intra-group divisions are often fuelled by factors such as local interests, external influences and leadership struggles. This further increases the fragmentation of Iraqi politics. The rivalry between Shiite groups is one of the most prominent examples of intra-group divisions in Iraq. The tension between the Sadrist Movement led by Muqtada al-Sadr and the Iranian-backed Coordination Framework has led to serious problems in government formation processes and social peace. In 2022, during the clashes in the Green Zone these tensions spilled over into the streets and armed violence. The 2024 armed clashes between Saraya al-Salam and Asa’ib Ahl al-Haq in Basra show how fragmented the Shiite identity is within itself.
Divisions are also being experienced among Sunnis. In particular, the rivalry between the Taqaddum Coalition led by Mohammed al-Halbousi and other Sunni groups is shaped by local interests. Halbousi is criticised by other Sunni leaders, and this has led to a split between different groups within the Sunni identity. This division affects the balances within the parliament after the elections and deepens the problems of representation in Sunni regions.
The rivalry between the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan is one of the biggest obstacles weakening the Kurdish unity. The economic and military conflicts of interest between these two parties have led to a divided Kurdish identity. The division of the Peshmerga forces between the two parties is a concrete indicator of this. The rise of the New Generation Movement in the recent elections, on the other hand, shows the disaffection of Kurdish youth toward the traditional parties, which may lead to a new dynamic of division within Iraqi Kurdish identity.
These divisions within Shiite, Sunni and Kurdish groups show that identity politics in Iraq is a multi-layered issue. Intragroup tensions also pose a serious threat to social peace and national integration.
Identity politics becoming more influential
In the post-2003 period, the reconstruction of state mechanisms on ethnic and sectarian grounds led to the institutionalisation of identity politics. The arrangements made to protect the interests of certain groups in legislative processes and internal conflicts within identity groups show that this process has deepened not only in politics but also at the social level. At this point, identity politics has weakened Iraq’s national identity building, has led to a deadlock in government formation processes and has made political instability permanent.
If the impact of identity politics continues to increase in Iraq, it is inevitable that political and social polarisation in Iraq will further deepen. In the current order, politics has turned into a field of competition between certain identity groups instead of pursuing national interests. All mechanisms of the state, including parliament, government and security institutions, are affected by these identity-based divisions.
The rising identity politics in Iraq is one of the biggest threats to the political stability of the country. The fact that sectarian and ethnic-based rivalries take precedence over national identity and a common future increases the risk of the country’s disintegration in the long term.
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