Abstract
Mental health problems are prevalent among Chinese college students, with over 20% experiencing disorders like depression. For primary education preservice teachers, these problems can affect their future teaching and student outcomes. This study examines the influence of childhood trauma on the mental health of primary education preservice teachers, focusing on rumination as a mediator and self-acceptance as a moderator. The research aims to uncover mechanisms contributing to mental health challenges among future educators. This study sampled 676 preservice primary school teachers from three universities in Shandong Province, China, and conducted a six-month follow-up survey. Childhood trauma significantly predicted rumination and mental health problems. Rumination mediated the trauma-mental health link, indicating that those who ruminate are more prone to mental health problems. Self-acceptance moderated these effects, with higher self-acceptance reducing the negative impact of trauma and rumination. The results validate the positive role of the Risk and Protective Factor Framework in understanding mental health problems. Addressing childhood trauma and rumination in mental health interventions for preservice teachers is crucial. Enhancing self-acceptance may protect against the adverse effects of trauma, promoting better mental health outcomes for future educators.
The university period is a peak period for the onset of mental disorders. According to relevant research, over 20% of Chinese college students suffer from mental health problems such as depression, and this proportion has been continuously increasing in the past decade (Health, 2017; Liu et al., 2019a; Liu et al., 2019b). These mental health problems can lead to academic challenges, decreased school engagement and participation, deteriorated peer relationships, and even dropout (Long et al., 2020; Mahdavi et al., 2023). Furthermore, mental health problems negatively affect students’ future careers (Liu, 2022). Specifically, for primary education preservice teachers, mental health problems may affect their future work quality and the mental health of their students. Jennings and Greenberg (2009) pointed out that mental health problems may prevent teachers from creating a positive learning environment and face challenges in classroom management. Harding et al. (2019) further emphasize that teachers with poor mental health may contribute to the mental health problems of their students. Therefore, studying the mental health issues of primary education preservice teachers is crucial, which can help develop effective support measures and better prepare them for their future careers.
The mental health problems of college students are influenced by various factors, such as family economic status (Wahed and Hassan, 2017), parents’ occupation and education level (Tao et al., 2002), and parental marital conflict and domestic violence (Escobar et al., 2020; Luvira et al., 2023). Furthermore, studies suggest that childhood trauma may be a significant risk factor for the mental health problems of college students (Fan et al., 2024; Khrapatina and Berman, 2017). Various traumatic events experienced during childhood, including the aforementioned parental marital conflict and domestic violence, can leave lasting psychological scars and further influence mental and social functioning in adulthood (Haj-Yahia et al., 2019).
Childhood trauma may have long-term negative effects on the development of primary education preservice teachers. Therefore, this study aims to delve into the impact of childhood trauma on the mental health problems of primary education preservice teachers and focuses on exploring the mediating and moderating roles of rumination and self-acceptance in this process. By introducing variables of rumination and self-acceptance, this paper provides a new theoretical perspective for the development of mental health interventions, which can help improve the mental health status of primary school education teachers and enhance the quality of their future educational work.
Childhood trauma and mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers
Childhood trauma refers to traumatic events experienced or suffered by an individual before the age of 16, including sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. These events often make it difficult for individuals to cope effectively, leading to a prolonged states of anxiety and even feelings of despair and helplessness (Pechtel and Pizzagalli, 2011). Statistics indicate that over 60% of children have been exposed to some form of traumatic event before the age of 16, with more than 30% exposed to multiple events (Copeland et al., 2007; McLaughlin et al., 2013). Early research suggests that childhood trauma may result in long-term negative consequences. For instance, childhood trauma may affect an individual’s emotional and behavioral responses in adulthood, and even lead to deficits in social functioning. Furthermore, childhood trauma may also impact brain function and the nervous system (Nemeroff, 2004; Putnam, 2006).
Extensive research has shown that adverse experiences during childhood can have a significant impact on the mental health of children and adolescents (Miller-Lewis et al., 2013). For example, individuals who have experienced family conflict or domestic violence during childhood may frequently feel fear, anxiety, and insecurity, which can negatively affect their mental health (Kim et al., 2007). Childhood experiences of being left behind by parents have also been confirmed as important risk factors affecting the mental health problems of college students (Liu et al., 2020). Due to the lack of parental companionship and guidance during critical developmental stages, these individuals may feel lonely, helpless, and lost, which can increase the risk of developing mental health problems (Zhang, 2016). Moreover, Bruce et al. (2012) pointed out that adverse childhood experiences can increase the risk of mental health problems such as hallucinations, depression, anxiety, and even suicidal tendencies and mental illnesses.
Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis in this study:
H1: There is a significant positive correlation between childhood trauma and mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers.
The mediating role of rumination
Rumination, as a psychological response pattern, is defined as the tendency to spontaneously and repeatedly think about the causes of a negative event, the event itself, and its potential adverse consequences when faced with negative life events or stressful environments, rather than actively solving the problem (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 1991). Smith and Saldana (2013) pointed out that rumination encompasses cognitive representations of stressors, whether real or imagined, which are typically negative and unconstructive. Additionally, rumination includes the cognitive representation of stressors, whether real or imagined, which are usually negative and non-constructive. Additionally, rumination also involves an uncomfortable, persistent focus on emotional experiences and their causes and consequences (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Therefore, rumination tends to have a compulsive nature, making it difficult for individuals to shift their attention away from the stressor (Webb et al., 2012).
As a psychological coping strategy for negative life events, rumination is considered a significant risk factor for negative psychological outcomes, especially among adults who have experienced childhood trauma (Mansueto et al., 2021). Individuals with adverse childhood experiences may exhibit cognitive, emotional, and behavioral vulnerabilities, such as anxiety, rumination, and avoidance (Barlow and Goldsmith, 2014; Nanda et al., 2016). This is because people who have experienced childhood trauma often attribute negative outcomes to their own stable internal characteristics (Andrews, 1998; Briere and Runtz, 1993), thereby further promoting rumination (Atlas and Peterson, 1990). According to the response styles theory, rumination is seen as a risk factor for an individual’s mental health problems (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). In this sustained state of negative thinking, if no active measures are taken to solve the problem, it may lead to more severe psychological outcomes and maladaptive thinking or behaviors, including mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation (Horwitz et al., 2019; Nagy et al., 2023). Therefore, for college students who have experienced childhood trauma, persistent rumination may negatively affect their mental health.
Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis in this study:
H2: Rumination plays a mediating role between childhood trauma and mental health problems.
H2a: Childhood trauma is significantly positively correlated with rumination.
H2b: Rumination is significantly positively correlated with mental health problems.
The moderating role of self-acceptance
Allport (1921) suggested that self-acceptance refers to an individual’s positive acknowledgment of various aspects of themselves, accepting their unique traits and actual circumstances, and being able to accurately assess themselves. Self-acceptance also involves accepting others’ perspectives to improve self-awareness and evaluation. Allport (1961) closely links self-acceptance with self-concept, stating that self-acceptance is both the recognition of the main self and the guest self, as well as an attitude towards both the main self and the guest self. Therefore, he regarded self-acceptance as one of the manifestations of a mature and healthy personality. Similarly, Flett et al. (2003) found that students with higher levels of self-acceptance respond more calmly to negative feedback about themselves compared to those with lower levels of self-acceptance, and they tend to be more objective in their self-assessments.
Individuals who have been exposed to negative growth environments such as denial, neglect, or abuse for a long time often develop lower self-evaluation (Hawkins, 2012; Herzog and Schmahl, 2018), leading to the formation of a negative self-concept (Melamed et al., 2024). However, self-acceptance allows individuals to more flexibly cope with negative events in life, thereby adjusting their self-perception or behavioral goals (Meng et al., 2017). Moreover, rumination, as a form of self-centered cognition, mainly focuses on the gap between the ideal self and the real self and analyzes and evaluates the self. In contrast, individuals with self-acceptance typically exhibit a more positive attitude, they are able to accept past experiences and maintain inner peace and emotional stability (Xu et al., 2015). Furthermore, according to the Risk and Protective Factor Framework (Hawkins et al., 1992), there is a dynamic interaction between risk factors (such as childhood trauma and rumination) and protective factors (such as self-acceptance) that influence college students’ mental health. While risk factors may lead individuals toward negative outcomes, protective factors help alleviate this tendency. Thus, self-acceptance can be seen as a protective factor that helps alleviate the negative impact of phenomena such as childhood trauma and rumination on college students’ mental health.
Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis in this study:
H3: Self-acceptance moderates the relationships among childhood trauma, rumination, and mental health problems.
The current research
This study is based on the Risk and Protective Factor Framework, explores the relationship between childhood trauma and mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers, and examines the mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of self-acceptance. The aim is to reveal the mechanisms behind the formation and protection of mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers. This study mainly proposes three research questions:
Can childhood trauma directly and significantly predict mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers?
Does rumination mediate the relationship between childhood trauma and mental health problems?
Does self-acceptance moderate the relationships among childhood trauma, rumination, and mental health problems?
Based on these research questions, this study constructs a research model, as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
figure 1
Theoretical hypothesis framework of this study.
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Methods
Sample
This study employed a convenience random sampling method to survey three universities in Shandong Province, China, that offer primary education programs. The survey was conducted in two waves. The first wave took place in December 2023, where participants completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF), the Ruminative Response Scale, and the Self-Acceptance Questionnaire. The second wave occurred in July 2024, with participants completing the General Health Questionnaire. The surveys were administered by trained personnel using a paper-and-pencil method, and the questionnaires were distributed on-site. Data that was collected in an obviously short amount of time were excluded from the analysis. The first wave yielded 712 valid questionnaires, and the second wave yielded 686 valid questionnaires. After pairing the data from the two waves, 676 valid matched datasets were obtained, while 36 unmatched datasets were considered as attrition. A Little’s MCAR test indicated that the missing data was completely random (χ2 = 65.079, df = 66, p = 0.509) (Little, 1988). Among the participants, 488 were female, accounting for 72.18%, and 188 were male, accounting for 27.82%. The age distribution was as follows: 25 participants were 18 years old, 87 were 19 years old, 148 were 20 years old, 111 were 21 years old, 97 were 22 years old, 179 were 23 years old, and 29 were 24 years old. The research ethics committee of the first author’s institution reviewed and approved the study’s ethical considerations.
Measurements
Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF; T1)
This study employed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF) developed by Bernstein et al. (1994) to assess the childhood trauma experiences of parents (Bernstein et al., 1994). The Chinese version, revised by Fu and Yao (2005), has been widely used among the Chinese population (Zhang et al., 2021). The questionnaire consists of 28 items covering five subscales: Emotional Abuse, Physical Abuse, Sexual Abuse, Emotional Neglect, and Physical Neglect. Example items include: “I was hit hard enough to leave bruises.” The scoring uses a 5-point scale (1 = Never, 5 = Always), with total scores ranging from 25 to 125, where higher scores indicate more severe early trauma experiences. In this sample, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the CTQ-SF was 0.963.
Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; T1)
The Ruminative Response Scale (RRS) (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008) was used to measure individuals’ ruminative responses to negative emotions. The Chinese version was revised by Han and Yang (2009). This scale contains 22 items divided into three subscales: Symptom Rumination, Brooding, and Reflective Pondering. An example item is: “I think about how alone I feel.” The scale has been widely used among the Chinese population (Qiu et al., 2023). Scoring is done using a 4-point Likert scale (1 = Almost Never, 4 = Almost Always), with higher total scores indicating higher levels of rumination. The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.920.
Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ; T1)
This study used the Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ) developed by Cong and Gao (1999) to assess individuals’ levels of self-acceptance. The questionnaire contains 16 items divided into two subscales: Self-Acceptance and Self-Judgment. The scale has been widely used in China (Wu et al., 2024). All items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale, where the Self-Judgment items are scored from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree), and the Self-Acceptance items are reverse-scored. Higher total scores indicate higher levels of self-acceptance. In this study, the SAQ demonstrated good internal consistency, with a total Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.922.
General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12; T2)
This study used the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) developed by Goldberg and Blackwell (1970) to assess the mental health status of college students. The questionnaire comprises 12 items, divided into three dimensions: Anxiety/Depression, Social Dysfunction, and Lack of Confidence. An example item is: “Could not overcome difficulties.” The scoring follows a four-level system: “Not at all,” “Same as usual,” “Better than usual,” or “Much better than usual.” According to the WHO’s scoring method of “0-0-1-1,” a response of ① or ② is scored as 0 points, while a response of ③ or ④ is scored as 1 point. The total score ranges from 0 to 12, with a typical cutoff at 3 points. A score of 0 indicates low (or no) health risk, 1–3 points indicate moderate health risk, and a score above 4 is considered indicative of high health risk (Goldberg et al., 1997). In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this scale was 0.814.
Results
Common method bias test
Given that the study data were collected using questionnaires, the results may be subject to common method bias. Therefore, this study employed Harman’s single-factor test to statistically assess the presence of common method bias. The analysis identified 13 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 before rotation, with the first factor accounting for 22.582% of the variance, which is below the critical value of 40% (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Therefore, significant common method bias was not present in this study.
Descriptive statistical analysis
Table 1 presents the Pearson correlation results among the study variables. The results show significant correlations among childhood trauma, rumination, and mental health problems in elementary education students. Specifically, childhood trauma was significantly positively correlated with rumination (r = 0.192, p < 0.01) and mental health problems (r = 0.485, p < 0.01). Additionally, rumination was significantly positively correlated with mental health problems (r = 0.280, p < 0.01).
Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the major study variables.
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Moderated mediation effect test
A moderated mediation analysis was conducted using the SPSS PROCESS macro. Parameter estimates were derived using bootstrapping with 5000 samples. A 95% confidence interval that does not include zero indicates a significant parameter. In this study, the participants’ age and gender were used as control variables, and the main research variables were standardized. Childhood trauma was the independent variable, mental health problems were the dependent variable, rumination was the mediating variable, and self-acceptance was the moderating variable.
First, the mediation effect was tested using PROCESS Model 4. After controlling for age and gender, childhood trauma was found to significantly positively predict rumination (β = 0.166, p < 0.001), significantly positively predict mental health problems (β = 0.330, p < 0.001), and rumination significantly positively predicted mental health problems (β = 0.163, p < 0.001). The results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Direct effect analysis in the mediation model.
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To test the moderating effect of self-acceptance in the mediation model, SPSS PROCESS Model 58 was used for moderation analysis. As shown in Table 3, the interaction between childhood trauma and self-acceptance significantly negatively predicted rumination (β = −0.009, t = −3.745, p < 0.001). Additionally, the interaction between rumination and self-acceptance significantly negatively predicted mental health problems (β = −0.007, t = −5.411, p < 0.001).
Table 3 Moderated mediation analysis.
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To further explore this effect, a simple slope analysis was conducted. The self-acceptance scores were set at one standard deviation above and below the mean, representing high and low self-acceptance groups. The moderating effect of self-acceptance on the relationship between childhood trauma and rumination is illustrated in Fig. 2. In the high self-acceptance group, childhood trauma did not significantly predict rumination (simple slope = −0.015, t = −0.526, p = 0.599). In the low self-acceptance group, childhood trauma significantly positively predicted rumination (simple slope = 0.126, t = 4.47, p < 0.001).
Fig. 2
figure 2
Simple slope plot of the moderating role of self-acceptance between childhood trauma and rumination.
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The moderating effect of self-acceptance on the relationship between rumination and mental health problems is illustrated in Fig. 3. In the high self-acceptance group, rumination did not significantly predict mental health problems (simple slope = −0.010, t = −0.670, p = 0.503). In the low self-acceptance group, rumination significantly positively predicted mental health problems (simple slope = 0.097, t = 6.946, p < 0.001).
Fig. 3
figure 3
J-N diagram of the moderating role of self-acceptance between childhood trauma and rumination.
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The Johnson-Neyman technique was then used to determine the regions of significance for the simple slope of childhood trauma predicting rumination at different levels of self-acceptance. As shown in Fig. 4, when the self-acceptance level was between 1.619 and 15.947, childhood trauma did not significantly predict rumination. However, when self-acceptance was below 1.619 or above 15.947, childhood trauma significantly positively predicted rumination.
Fig. 4
figure 4
Simple slope plot of the moderating role of self-acceptance between rumination and mental health problems.
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The regions of significance for the simple slope of rumination predicting mental health problems were also determined. As shown in Fig. 5, when the self-acceptance level was between 2.984 and 12.259, rumination did not significantly predict mental health problems. However, when self-acceptance was below 2.984 or above 12.259, rumination significantly positively predicted mental health problems.
Fig. 5
figure 5
J-N diagram of the moderating role of self-acceptance between rumination and mental health problems.
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Discussion
This study found that childhood trauma has a positive predictive effect on mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers, which is consistent with previous research findings (Cecil et al., 2017; Nöthling et al., 2020). Children who experience prolonged negative stress during development are more likely to develop adverse personality traits and cognitive styles (Hovens et al., 2016; Lee and Song, 2017). These include decreased emotional stability, lowered self-esteem, and negative cognitive biases toward oneself and others (Gawęda et al., 2020; Marusak et al., 2015; Ozdemir and Sahin, 2020). These adverse personality traits and cognitive styles may further trigger the onset of mental health problems. Additionally, according to psychoanalytic theory, childhood trauma can have profound effects on the subconscious level. These traumatic experiences may be repressed or forgotten, but they remain in the subconscious and can affect an individual’s behavior, emotions, and cognition in various ways (Breuer and Freud, 1893). When primary education preservice teachers face stressful events, negative thoughts from the subconscious may be activated, leading individuals to adopt negative thinking and behaviors to cope with stress, thereby increasing the risk of feelings of helplessness and depression (Zhang et al., 2018).
This study found that rumination partially mediates the relationship between childhood trauma and mental health problems. Specifically, childhood trauma can directly impact mental health problems, and it can also indirectly influence mental health through rumination. This finding aligns with the shattered world hypothesis (Janoff-Bulman, 2010), which posits that childhood trauma can disrupt an individual’s existing belief system, making it difficult to process trauma within the framework of their original beliefs. This imbalance in the belief system may lead to psychological insecurity and fear (Edmondson et al., 2011). To alleviate this imbalance and escape from internal pain and anxiety, individuals may repeatedly engage in cognitive processing and reflection on the traumatic events and their negative consequences, in an attempt to understand and resolve their inner conflicts and seek psychological comfort and relief (Janoff-Bulman, 2010). However, rumination does not truly resolve the individual’s internal issues, instead, it often leads to a cycle of negative thinking, thereby exacerbating the severity of mental health problems (Nagy et al., 2023).
This study found that self-acceptance not only moderates the relationship between childhood trauma and rumination but also moderates the relationship between rumination and mental health problems. This indicates that self-acceptance, as an internal psychological resource, can significantly weaken or even eliminate the adverse effects of risk factors on individuals. Specifically, when self-acceptance is low, childhood trauma is more likely to provoke rumination, which in turn exacerbates mental health problems. However, when self-acceptance is high, this causal relationship becomes insignificant. This finding is consistent with the Risk and Protective Factor Framework proposed by Hawkins et al. (1992), which posits that an individual’s developmental trajectory is influenced by the dynamic interaction between risk and protective factors. While risk factors tend to push individuals towards adverse psychological and behavioral states, protective factors can buffer or counteract these negative effects.
In this study, self-acceptance is a crucial protective factor by diminishing the impact of childhood trauma on rumination and the effect of rumination on mental health problems, thereby playing a role in protecting individuals’ mental health. This is because individuals with higher levels of self-acceptance are better able to buffer against psychological problems (Bernard et al., 2013). Moreover, high self-acceptance allows individuals with mental health problems to learn from life events and fosters optimal psychological health in adulthood (MacInnes, 2006; Sanghvi et al., 2023). Consequently, individuals with high self-acceptance are less likely to be overwhelmed by the painful emotions associated with trauma and less likely to ruminate repeatedly on these painful experiences. Instead, they are more capable of accepting past traumas as part of their personal history and focusing their attention on present life and future growth.
The Risk and Protective Factor Framework proposed by Hawkins et al. (1992) suggests a dynamic interaction between risk and protective factors. This study empirically validates this hypothesis and further demonstrates the critical role of protective factors in psychological development. As a protective factor, self-acceptance mediates the effects of childhood trauma on rumination and the impact of rumination on mental health problems, revealing its dynamic interaction mechanism in psychological development. This validation not only supports the theoretical foundation of the Risk and Protective Factor Framework but also provides strong evidence for future research.
Primary education preservice teachers represent the future of the educational field. They will not only directly impact the quality of education but also serve as crucial guides and role models in children’s developmental journeys. Therefore, this study offers strategies and recommendations to alleviate their childhood trauma, reduce rumination, and enhance self-acceptance.
Addressing childhood trauma: First, seeking professional psychological therapy is an effective way to mitigate childhood trauma. Schools should provide psychological counseling services to ensure that students receive timely psychological support and guidance within the school environment. Second, building a strong support network within the family, school, and community, including building close relationships with family, friends, teachers, and classmates, supporting and understanding each other, and sharing each other’s feelings and experiences. Lastly, students should prioritize their physical and mental health by engaging in regular exercise, maintaining good sleep habits, cultivating hobbies, and finding ways to relax and de-stress. These actions can help them better cope with life’s challenges and pressures, improving their self-regulation and resilience.
Avoiding rumination: First, it is important to become aware of one’s thinking patterns and behavioral habits, especially those that may lead to negative thoughts and emotions associated with rumination. Second, learning emotional regulation techniques, such as deep breathing, relaxation training, and mindfulness meditation, can help reduce stress and anxiety, thereby decreasing the occurrence of rumination. Lastly, engaging in alternative healthy activities to replace rumination, such as physical exercise, artistic creation, and social interactions, to focus your attention and energy toward more positive endeavors.
Enhancing self-acceptance: First, individuals should recognize that everyone has flaws and imperfections, accepting their own shortcomings and learning to treat themselves with kindness without excessive self-blame. Second, viewing failures and challenges as opportunities for growth and learning and drawing lessons from them can be beneficial. Finally, striving for continuous learning and personal growth and pursuing individual goals can enhance self-confidence and self-esteem.
Research limitations and future directions
This study explored the impact of childhood trauma on mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers, the mediating role of rumination, and the moderating role of self-acceptance. However, there are some limitations. Firstly, the reliance on self-report data may be influenced by respondent expectations, potentially affecting the accuracy and objectivity of the data. Future research could use observational and experimental methods to obtain more objective data. Additionally, while this study focused on childhood trauma, rumination, and mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers, future research could further investigate the impact of family environment, school support, and social resources on mental health and their supportive roles. Thirdly, personality traits are significantly associated with mental health (Kang and Malvaso, 2024). However, this study did not control for personality traits closely related to mental health, which might have influenced the findings. Lastly, this study was limited to three universities in Shandong Province, China, potentially restricting the regional generalizability of the results. Future research could address this limitation by incorporating data from a broader geographical scope.
Conclusion
This study explored the complex relationships among childhood trauma, rumination, self-acceptance, and mental health problems among primary education preservice teachers in China. The results indicate that rumination mediates the relationship between childhood trauma and mental health problems, while self-acceptance moderates the relationships between childhood trauma and rumination, and between rumination and mental health problems. These findings underscore the importance of self-acceptance as a key protective factor. Additionally, the results validate the positive role of the Risk and Protective Factor Framework in understanding mental health problems among college students. By analyzing these relationships in depth, this study offers a new theoretical perspective on college students’ mental health and practical recommendations for improving their psychological well-being.
Data availability
Dataset available via https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/3K7MW.
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Fenxia Huang
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The execution of this paper was a collaborative effort on behalf of all author. FH conceptualized and designed the study. FH conducted the data collection and analysis, and drafted and revised the manuscript.
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Huang, F. The impact of childhood trauma on the mental health problems of primary education preservice teachers: the mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of self-acceptance. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 12, 456 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04433-7
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Received:19 August 2024
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DOI:https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04433-7
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