Abstract
Arterial stiffness, a cardiovascular disease (CVD) predictor starting from youth, is under-researched in young adults. Low-intensity aerobic exercise (LAE) is generally more accessible than higher-intensity exercise and may be more sustainable for young individuals. Blueberries, renowned for vascular health benefits, may reduce arterial stiffness. This study examines the effects of LAE and blueberry juice on arterial stiffness in 48 young adults. Participants were randomized into LAE, low-, mid-, or high-volume blueberry juice (LB, MB, HB), LAE + LB, LAE + MB, LAE + HB, and control groups. Arterial stiffness was measured at baseline and at 15-, 30-, 45-, and 60 min post-intervention. Blood samples were collected pre-intervention and 30-min post-intervention for metabolomic analysis. Repeated ANOVA revealed LAE + MB significantly reduced arterial stiffness. Metabolomic analysis revealed changes in linoleic acid, sphingolipid, phenylalanine, nicotinate and nicotinamide, glycerophospholipid, and lysine degradation metabolic pathways. These findings suggest a feasible exercise-diet strategy for CVD prevention in young adults and provide metabolic insights into the mechanisms.
Introduction
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of mortality worldwide, accounting for approximately one-third of all global deaths, with 20.5 million deaths recorded in 20211. The development of CVD often begins early in life, emphasizing the critical importance of primary prevention in young adults as a strategy to mitigate its long-term impact2. Arterial stiffness, usually measured by pulse wave velocity (PWV), is a well-established predictor of cardiovascular risk3, with higher levels associated with increased risk, even in younger populations4. Given this, identifying interventions that can effectively reduce arterial stiffness in young adults is of paramount importance for the prevention of CVDs5.
Aerobic exercise with moderate- to high-intensity has long been recommended for CVD prevention6. However, adherence to such exercise regimens remains suboptimal among young people7, with approximately 75% of this population leading sedentary lifestyles8. Notably, a recent national survey highlighted that a substantial proportion of young adults in China exhibit detrimental health behaviors, including poor dietary habits, inadequate sleep, and insufficient physical activity9. These behaviors collectively contribute to an elevated risk of adverse health outcomes, including the development of vascular dysfunction. Furthermore, young adults typically exhibit lower baseline arterial stiffness compared to older individuals10. This suggests that the inherent plasticity of arterial stiffness in younger populations is more constrained, posing a greater challenge to inducing significant changes through exercise interventions10. For instance, while moderate-intensity aerobic exercise has been demonstrated to effectively reduce arterial stiffness in older populations11, its impact on young adults appears to be limited12. In contrast, evidence indicates that low-intensity aerobic exercise (LAE) may exert beneficial effects on endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity13. eNOS-derived nitric oxide (NO) plays a critical role in maintaining vascular homeostasis and promoting vasodilation, thereby highlighting the potential of LAE to ameliorate arterial stiffness. Consequently, LAE, defined as exercise performed at 30–39% heart rate reserve (HRR)14, may serve as a more feasible and appealing alternative for young individuals.
In parallel, blueberries are one of the richest sources of proanthocyanidins among all fruits15. These bioactive compounds are well-recognized for their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in endothelial cells and have been suggested to confer vascular benefits16,17. Research has demonstrated that blueberries positively affect arterial stiffness in postmenopausal women with pre- and stage 1 hypertension18, in postmenopausal women with hypertension19, and in patients with coronary heart disease20. However, studies on the effect of blueberry consumption on arterial stiffness have yielded inconsistent results. For instance, no significant changes in arterial stiffness were observed following blueberry consumption among healthy men21 and sedentary males and females22. Discrepancies across studies may be attributed to variations in vascular health status, further emphasizing the necessity of targeted interventions to reduce arterial stiffness in young populations.
According to the existence of the aforementioned studies, both LAE and blueberry consumption have been individually associated with improvements in endothelial function, suggesting that combining the two may synergistically enhance endothelial health and reduce arterial stiffness. Metabolic pathways involved in endothelial cell signaling, such as sphingolipid metabolism23, may mediate the beneficial effects of these interventions. However, despite the promising theoretical benefits, the effects of combining LAE with blueberry juice on arterial stiffness in young adults remain unexplored.
This study aims to examine the effects of LAE and blueberry juice, both independently and in combination, on arterial stiffness, assessed via brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV), while also exploring the associated changes in key metabolic pathways in young individuals.
Results
A total of 48 healthy participants (24 males, 24 females; aged 18–24 years; BMI 18.5–25.3 kg/m²) were stratified by sex and equally allocated to eight experimental groups (n = 6/group, 3 males and 3 females per group) through block randomization. The groups included: LAE, LB, MB, HB, LAE + LB, LAE + MB, LAE + HB, and Control. As shown in Table 1, age and sex distributions were balanced across all groups (male vs. female: 1 vs. 1; aged 21.6 ± 1.8 years), with no significant between-group differences in baseline BMI, SB, DB, HR, and baPWV (p > 0.05 by ANOVA). All data are presented as mean ± SD.
Table 1 Characteristics of participants (n = 48, Mean ± SD)
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For baPWV, the two-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of times (F (3.53, 141) = 4.59, P = 0.0026), indicating that baPWV varied significantly across different levels of times. However, no significant main effect of groups (F (7, 40) = 1.20, P = 0.328) or interaction effect between times and groups (F (28, 160) = 1.33, P = 0.14) was observed. Given the significant main effect of times, post-hoc analyses (Tukey’s test) were performed to identify specific differences between the times. The results indicated that the baPWV significantly decreased in the LAE + MB group compared to the pre-exercise values at post-30 (95% CI: −237.2 to −32.5, P = 0.0172), post-45 (95% CI: −143.7 to −35.6, P = 0.0065), and post-60 min (95%CI: −158 to −8.7, P = 0.0332) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: LAE + MB decreases baPWV at post 15, post 30, post 45, and post 60 min.
figure 1
LAE low-intensity aerobic exercise (30% HRR) for 45 min, LB low-volume blueberry juice consumption (25 ml), MB mid-volume blueberry juice consumption (50 ml), HB high-volume blueberry juice consumption (100 ml). Changes of baPWV. Data are shown as the mean ± SD. *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01.
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For SB, HB, and HR, the two-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed no significant main effects for either group or time. Specifically, no significant group differences were observed for SB (F (7, 40) = 0.37, p = 0.9163), DB (F (7, 40) = 0.47, p = 0.8486), or HR (F (7, 40) = 0.20, p = 0.9836). Additionally, no significant effects were found for time, with SB showing no significant effect (F (3.4, 135.6) = 1.3, p = 0.2808), DB (F (3.3, 131.6) = 0.1, p = 0.9904), or HR (F (3, 119.5) = 1.8, p = 0.1469). Furthermore, there was no significant interaction between group and time for SB (F (28, 160) = 0.34, p = 0.9993), DB (F (28, 160) = 0.7759, p = 0.8486), or HR (F (28, 160) = 0.96, p = 0.5262) (Table 2).
Table 2 No changes in SB, DB, and HR in all groups (n = 48, Mean ± SD)
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Blood samples from the LAE + MB group were used for untargeted metabolomics analysis (VIP > 1, supplementary material). Through Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) analysis, the model quality parameters were as follows: Q2 = 0.697 and R2Y = 0.992, demonstrating the robustness and reliability of the model in capturing the underlying metabolic patterns. Metabolic pathways with an impact value greater than 0.1 were selected as untargeted metabolic pathways. Linoleic acid metabolism (Total: 5, Hits: 1, FDR: 0.94669, Impact: 1), sphingolipid metabolism (Total: 32, Hits: 6, FDR: 0.00027313, Impact: 0.31415), phenylalanine metabolism (Total: 8, Hits: 1, FDR: 1, Impact: 0.2381), nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism (Total: 15, Hits: 2, FDR: 0.38178, Impact: 0.1943), glycerophospholipid metabolism (Total: 36, Hits: 3, FDR: 0.37842, Impact: 0.14767), and lysine degradation (Total: 30, Hits: 1, FDR: 1, Impact: 0.10634) (Table 3).
Table 3 Untargeted metabolic pathway
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Discussion
To address the hypothesis that both LAE and blueberry consumption, individually associated with improvements in endothelial function, might synergistically enhance endothelial health and reduce arterial stiffness. Our study found that the combination of 30% HRR aerobic exercise and 50 ml of blueberry juice significantly improved baPWV in young individuals. This intervention also impacted several metabolic pathways, including linoleic acid, sphingolipid, phenylalanine, nicotinate and nicotinamide, glycerophospholipid, and lysine degradation. In contrast, neither 30% HRR aerobic exercise alone, nor the consumption of 25 ml, 50 ml, or 100 ml of blueberry juice, nor the combination of 30% HRR aerobic exercise with 20 ml or 100 ml of blueberry juice, resulted in significant changes in baPWV within this population. These results highlight the importance of precise combinations of exercise and dietary interventions to optimize vascular health outcomes.
The lack of effect observed with 30% HRR aerobic exercise or blueberry juice supplementation alone suggests that these interventions, when applied independently, may not provide sufficient stimuli to induce measurable changes in arterial stiffness in young individuals. This is likely due to the inherently favorable vascular profile of young individuals, including more compliant arteries24, better endothelial function25, and lower baseline levels of oxidative stress and inflammation compared to middle-aged and elderly individuals26. These physiological characteristics make it harder for interventions to show significant benefits unless they are precisely optimal. The absence of vascular health improvement induced by 30% HRR aerobic exercise may be attributed to the relatively low shear stress, as evidenced by blood pressure and HR returning to pre-exercise levels within 15 min, coupled with limited activation of NO pathways27. Previous studies have shown that moderate (50% HRR)28 and higher (70% HRR)29 exercise intensities are more effective at reducing arterial stiffness in this population, likely due to greater vascular stimulation27. However, higher intensity exercise poses adherence challenges30, particularly for individuals with no exercise history31, potentially compromising long-term outcomes. Blueberries, known for their high anthocyanin content, have been shown in animal studies to enhance endothelial function by promoting NO production, which improves arterial compliance32. But evidence on hunman studies are less certain about its effects on endothelial function32. Our results revealed no significant changes in baPWV with blueberry juice supplementation alone in young individuals, regardless of the volume consumed. This highlights the need for complementary strategies, such as combining LAE with dietary interventions, to amplify vascular benefits effectively.
The most intriguing finding of this study is the significant improvement in baPWV observed with the combination of 30% HRR aerobic exercise and a moderate volume (50 ml) of blueberry juice. This synergistic effect suggests that even low-intensity exercise when paired with a well-targeted dietary intervention, can create an environment conducive to improving arterial health. The intake of proanthocyanidins was estimated to range from 90 to 570 mg in previous studies33,34. In our study, 50 ml of blueberry juice contained approximately 336 mg of proanthocyanidins, falling within this effective range. At post-30 min, baPWV in the LAE + MB group was 914 cm/s, compared to 1049 cm/s in pre-intervention, representing a reduction of 135 cm/s (approximately 12.9%) in baPWV. This finding could serve as a foundation for developing tailored interventions to mitigate arterial stiffening and prevent future CVDs. However, it is important to emphasize that older adults tend to exhibit a greater relative reduction in arterial stiffness in response to interventions such as moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, likely due to their higher baseline levels of arterial stiffness. Nevertheless, these improvements generally do not restore arterial elasticity to levels observed in younger individuals, underscoring the irreversible component of age-related arterial stiffening10. This highlights the critical importance of early intervention strategies aimed at arterial health in young adults, as the vascular system may exhibit greater plasticity during this life stage. Interestingly, this significant reduction in baPWV, no corresponding changes were observed in blood pressure. This presents an intriguing aspect of the study, as baPWV and blood pressure are typically considered to be closely related; higher arterial stiffness generally correlates with higher blood pressure. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that baPWV and blood pressure reflect different physiological processes. While blood pressure is regulated by a complex interplay of cardiac output, vascular resistance, and neural regulation35, baPWV primarily reflects the compliance or stiffness of the arterial walls36. Even though proanthocyanidins from blueberry juice and exercise can enhance vascular function and reduce stiffness, this may not necessarily translate into an immediate change in blood pressure, particularly in the short term. In contrast, a higher volume (100 ml) provided about 672 mg of proanthocyanidins, which may have contributed to a saturation effect37, diminishing the associated vascular benefits. This further highlights the potential for dose-dependent responses in vascular interventions, where more is not always better, and an optimal dose may be crucial for achieving the desired health outcomes.
The untargeted metabolomic analysis revealed six key metabolic pathways impacted by 30% HRR aerobic exercise combined with the consumption of 50 ml of blueberry juice, supporting this synergistic effect. Among these, sphingolipid metabolism, with the highest number of hits (6 out of 32 total metabolites) and a significant impact score of 0.31, appears to play a crucial role in reducing arterial stiffness by maintaining cellular integrity and regulating inflammatory responses38. Glycerophospholipid metabolism also showed notable involvement, with 3 hits out of 36 total metabolites and an impact score of 0.15, highlighting its role in maintaining the elasticity and function of arterial walls39, particularly under the combined effect of aerobic exercise and blueberry juice. Proanthocyanidins from blueberries may enhance the bioavailability of NO through the modulation of phenylalanine metabolism40, leading to improved endothelial function even under light-intensity exercise41. Nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, with 2 hits out of 15 total metabolites and an impact score of 0.19, is essential for energy production and cellular repair, which supports endothelial cells and contributes to vascular health42. Linoleic acid metabolism, despite having only 1 hit out of 5 total metabolites, displayed a high impact score of 1, suggesting a potential positive role in reducing arterial stiffness, possibly through modulation of oxidative pathways43. Furthermore, the changes in serum vitamin C, as presented in the Supplementary Material, provide additional evidence for the antioxidant effects44. Both factors are critical for mitigating oxidative stress and improving the compliance of elastic arteries. Lastly, lysine degradation, with 1 hit out of 30 total metabolites and an impact score of 0.11, and glycerophospholipid metabolism could play vital roles in maintaining the structural integrity and elasticity of arterial walls39. By supporting these pathways, blueberry juice might amplify the minor vascular benefits of low-intensity exercise, resulting in a significant reduction in baPWV.
The acute changes observed in our study may not directly translate into long-term benefits without sustained intervention. Future research should explore whether repeated or chronic application of such interventions can lead to more pronounced and lasting improvements in arterial health. Furthermore, the study design might complicate result interpretation due to the high interindividual variability in responses to polyphenol consumption. Future research should consider utilizing crossover designs and recruiting a larger number of participants.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the consumption of 50 ml of blueberry juice followed by 45 min of aerobic exercise at 35% HRR effectively improves baPWV in young adults. The combined effects were mediated through linoleic acid, sphingolipid, phenylalanine, nicotinate and nicotinamide, glycerophospholipid, and lysine degradation metabolic pathways.
Material and methods
Participants and randomisation
A total of 48 young adults (24 males and 24 females, aged 21 ± 2.1 years) were recruited for the study. Inclusion criteria comprised willingness to participate, an age range of 18–25 years, no CVD, no history of severe allergies, non-smoker, no drug dependence, regular lifestyle, and regular menstrual cycle (female). Individuals with pre-existing medical conditions such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, elderly, athletes, or those using medications known to influence arterial stiffness were excluded from participation. All participants provided voluntary informed consent before their involvement in the study.
Males and females participants were randomly assigned numbers (1–8) separately using MS Excel, corresponding to the following groups: (i) LAE group; (ii) low-volume blueberry juice consumption group (LB); (iii) mid-volume blueberry juice consumption group (MB); (iv) high-volume blueberry juice consumption group (HB); (v) LAE + LB group; (vi) LAE + MB group; (vii) LAE + HB group; and (viii) control group. The assignment order and group codes were securely locked in a box by a secretary.
Study design
This study employed a cross-sectional, single-blinding, acute design where participants completed a single bout of low-intensity aerobic exercise (LAE) with or without the consumption of varying volumes of blueberry juice. The primary aim was to assess the immediate effects of these interventions on arterial stiffness, measured using baPWV, and to explore the potential metabolic pathways involved. Each participant underwent only one intervention session, which involved either LAE, blueberry juice consumption, or a combination of both. This approach enabled the evaluation of acute changes in arterial stiffness and metabolic responses following a single intervention, without repeated exposures.
The blueberry juice used in this study was sourced from He Yun, Tonghua City, Jilin Province, China, and identified by the production lot number 6925992600089. Each bottle contained 50 ml of juice. The juice was prepared using fresh blueberry fruits as raw materials, which were crushed by a colloid mill and filtered through a 200-mesh sieve. The juice was then filled and subjected to low-temperature sterilization to preserve its effective components, resulting in pure blueberry juice. The primary components of the juice per 100 grams are 157 KJ of energy, 0.2 g of protein, 0.1 g of fat, 8.9 g of carbohydrates, and 1 mg of sodium. Additionally, it contains 336 mg of proanthocyanidins and 3.54 × 102 U of superoxide dismutase. For administration to participants, the juice was prepared as follows: 25 ml for the LB group (measured using calibrated syringes), 50 ml (1 bottle) for the MB group, and 100 ml (2 bottles) for the HB group. The corresponding quantities of proanthocyanidins (168 mg, 336 mg, and 672 mg, respectively) were consistent with the intended concentrations for each group.
Blinding procedures
The researcher responsible for baPWV measurements was blinded to group assignments. To ensure blinding, this researcher waited in a separate room until participants were ready for measurement and did not interact with participants during the intervention phase. Additionally, the untargeted serum metabolomics analysis was conducted by Beijing Prorevo Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China), who were also blinded to group assignments. However, participants and researchers administering the interventions (e.g., exercise and blueberry juice) were not blinded.
Interventions
All exercise sessions were conducted on a treadmill in the Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Changchun Normal University. Participants in the LAE group performed 30% HRR running on a treadmill for 45 min. The treadmill speed was set by the researcher to ensure the target heart rate (HR) was achieved throughout the session. The target HR was calculated as follows: Equation (1): HRmax: 220-age; Equation (2): target HR: (Equation (1) – resting HR) x 30% + resting HR. Where resting HR was measured after the participant had rested for 10 min.
Participants in the LB, MB, and HB groups consumed 25, 50 ml, and 100 ml of blueberry juice and then rested quietly for 60 min before undergoing baPWV measurements, without engaging in any aerobic exercise. For the exercise groups, participants in the LAE + LB group consumed 25 ml of blueberry juice at the start of a 45-min aerobic exercise session at 30% HRR, followed by a 15-min rest period before baPWV measurements were taken. Participants in the LAE + MB and LAE + HB groups followed the same protocol but consumed 50 ml and 100 ml of blueberry juice, respectively, at the beginning of the exercise session. This design ensured that the total time from blueberry juice consumption to measurement was consistent across all groups (60 min: 45 min of exercise + 15 min of rest for exercise groups, and 60 min of rest for non-exercise groups). Participants in the control group underwent baPWV measurements only, without any intervention. Participants in all groups were advised to refrain from consuming foods or beverages that may affect arterial stiffness, such as caffeine and alcohol, during the study period.
The baPWV, systolic blood pressure (SB), diastolic blood pressure (DB), and HR were recorded at pre-intervention and 15, 30, 45, and 60-min intervals post-intervention. The first baPWV measurement was conducted 1 h after blueberry juice consumption, which coincides with the reported peak in plasma polyphenol metabolite concentration (1-2 h post-ingestion)45. Blood samples were collected from all participants both before and 30 min after the intervention. The serum samples were stored at −80 °C and those from groups showing a significant reduction in baPWV underwent further metabolic analysis (Fig. 2). The study was approved by the Changchun Normal University Ethics Committee (approval no.: 2024020) and registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (registration number ChiCTR2400086776). The data presented in the manuscript represents a portion of the results from this longer ongoing trial.
Fig. 2: Experimental flow chart.
figure 2
baPWV brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity, SB systolic blood pressure, DB diastolic blood pressure, HR heart rate, LAE low-intensity aerobic exercise (30% HRR), LB low-volume blueberry juice consumption (25 ml), MB mid-volume blueberry juice consumption (50 ml), HB high-volume blueberry juice consumption (100 ml).
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baPWV, SB, DB, HR measurement and metabolomics analysis
The baPWV, SB, DB, and HR were measured using an Omron BP-203RPEIII atherosclerosis detector (Omron Healthcare, Kyoto, Japan). All measurements were conducted in a quiet, temperature-controlled room after participants had rested in a supine position for at least 10 min. To minimize potential confounding factors, participants were instructed to avoid caffeine, alcohol, and strenuous physical activity for at least 12 h before testing. In addition, all female participants were tested during the luteal phase of their menstrual cycle, as hormone levels were relatively stable during this phase46. Participants, in a supine position with their upper arms and lower legs exposed, underwent pulse wave velocity measurements from the brachial artery to the ankle artery. They were instructed to maintain a state of calmness throughout the procedure. Upon completion, the device automatically displayed the values of baPWV, SB, DB, and HR. To calculate the precision error, four participants underwent three repeated measurements with repositioning to assess inter-study repeatability. The results of the three measurements were averaged for each participant during analysis to determine the coefficient of variation. In our laboratory, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.92 for baPWV, 0.94 for SB, 0.94 for DB, and 0.99 for HR.
The untargeted serum metabolomics analysis was conducted by Beijing Prorevo Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). In brief, 50 μL of serum was mixed with 450 μL of a precipitant composed of a 1:1 methanol solution. The mixture was vortexed for 60 s and centrifuged at 18,000×g at 4 °C for 10 min. After centrifugation, 100 μL of the supernatant was transferred to vials for analysis. Chromatographic separation was performed on an ACQUITY BEH C18 column (1.7 μm, 2.1 × 50 mm, Waters) using a DIONEX Ultimate 3000 UPLC system (Thermo Fisher Scientific). The mobile phase consisted of solvent A (2 mM ammonium formate) and solvent B (acetonitrile), delivered at a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min under the following gradient: 5% B (0 min), 5% B (1.0 min), 60% B (5.0 min), 100% B (8.0 min), 100% B (11.0 min), 60% B (14.0 min), 5% B (15.0 min), and 5% B (18.0 min). The total run time for each sample was 18 min. Mass spectrometry was performed on a Q Exactive quadrupole-Orbitrap hybrid mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) in both positive (+) and negative (−) ionization modes using an ESI (±) ion source. The ion source parameters were as follows: spray voltage, 2800 V; evaporation temperature, 350 °C; sheath gas, 35 Arb; auxiliary gas, 10 Arb; capillary temperature, 350 °C; and S-lens RF, 50. Mass spectrometry conditions included a full-scan mode with a resolution of 70,000, AGC target of 1e6, maximum injection time of 100 ms, and a scanning range of 70–1050 m/z. Blood samples for the metabolomics analysis were collected in vacuum tubes containing anticoagulants, allowed to clot for 30–60 min, and subsequently centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C to isolate the serum.
For female participants, all data were collected during the luteal phase. This phase was determined based on self-reported menstrual cycles, with participants recording three consecutive menstrual cycles before the start of the study to determine cycle regularity.
Statistical analysis
Power analysis was performed using G*Power 3.1.9.2 software to determine the minimum sample size required for detecting significant effects. A repeated measures ANOVA with within factors was used as the statistical test. The following parameters were used in the power analysis: effect size (Cohen’s f) = 0.25, alpha error probability = 0.01, power = 0.95, number of groups = 8, and number of measurements = 5. Based on these settings, the minimum sample size required was calculated to be 48 participants.
Data analysis was conducted in GraphPad Prism 9 (Boston, MA, USA). One-way ANOVA was used to compare baseline differences in age, body mass index (BMI), SB, DB, HR, and baPWV among the groups. A two-way repeated ANOVA was performed to compare differences for SB, DB, HR, and baPWV after interventions. The measurement time was set as within-group variables (5 times, independent variable 1), and interventions were set as between-group variables (8 groups, independent variable 2). Each of the outcome variables (SB, DB, HR, and baPWV) were set as the dependent variable. Within the ANOVA framework, F-tests were conducted to assess the overall significance of the main effects for both independent variables (intervention types and measurement times) as well as their potential interaction effect. When significant main effects and/or interaction effects were detected, post-hoc analyses using Tukey’s test were conducted to further explore pairwise differences between the levels of the independent variables. The F-statistics and corresponding p-values for all main effects, interaction effects, and post-hoc comparisons are presented in the results section. The level of significance was set at a ≤ 0.05.
Untargeted metabolic pathway analysis was performed using MetaboAnalyst 6.0, based on endogenous metabolites with VIP values greater than 1. The Q² value for false discovery rate (FDR) was set at ≥ 0.4.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Code availability
No custom code or mathematical algorithm was developed for this study.
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Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Changchun Normal University (Grant number: 2021004).
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These authors contributed equally: Ruisi Wu, Huali Yu.
Authors and Affiliations
Changchun Normal University, Changchun, Jilin, 130032, China
Ruisi Wu, Yongsheng Lan & Dongfang Shi
Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics, Ministry of Education and Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130024, China
Huali Yu
Tonghua Changbaishan Wild Economic Plant Research Institute, Tonghua, Jilin, 134100, China
Jiayuan Xu & Zhiqiang Tan
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Ruisi Wu
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Contributions
R.S.W. recruited participants, organized exercise interventions, conducted baPWV measurements, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript, conducted the systematic search, and gained funding for the publication. H.L.Y. and J.Y.X. performed the blood sample analysis. H.L.Y. and Z.Q.T. interpreted the data analysis and revised the draft. D.F.S. and Y.S.L. conceptualised the review idea. R.S.W and H.L.Y contributed equally. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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Correspondence to Yongsheng Lan or Dongfang Shi.
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Wu, R., Yu, H., Xu, J. et al. Effects of acute low intensity aerobics and blueberry juice on arterial stiffness in young adults. npj Sci Food 9, 47 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-025-00408-9
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Received:03 December 2024
Accepted:19 March 2025
Published:01 April 2025
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-025-00408-9
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